General Rule-Must Relate to Time, Event, or Person in Controversy
Generally, the evidence must relate to the time. event, or person involved in the present litigation; otherwise. it is not relevant.
When considering the relevance of evidence relating to a time. event. or person other than the one at issue, an important factor is its proximity in time to the current events.
General Rule-Must Relate to Time, Event, or Person in Controversy
Generally, the evidence must relate to the time. event, or person involved in the present litigation; otherwise. it is not relevant.
When considering the relevance of evidence relating to a time. event. or person other than the one at issue, an important factor is its proximity in time to the current events.
studying is the main source of knowledge books are indeed never failing friends of man for a mature mind reading is greatest source of pleasure and solace to distressed minds the study of good books ennobles us and broadens our outlook therefore the habit of reading should be cultivated a student should never confine himself to his schoolbooks on
Describe a typical instruction–execution cycle as executed on a system with von Neumann architecture. The instruction-execution cycle, also known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle, includes fetching the instruction from memory, decoding it to understand the operation and operands, and executing the instruction. This cycle repeats to process instructions sequentially.
Explain the concept of device driver. Describe how the device driver utilizes the interrupt mechanism to ensure orderly access to the shared memory while the device controllers execute in parallel. Device drivers are software components that facilitate communication between the OS and hardware. They use interrupts to coordinate memory access and enable parallel operations between the CPU and device controllers without conflicts.
What roles do device controllers and device drivers play in a computer system? Device controllers handle the hardware-level operations, while device drivers serve as the software interface to the OS, translating commands and managing data flow.
Explain why kernel data structures and algorithms are important to the major performance improvement in operating systems. Kernel data structures like queues and algorithms for scheduling and memory management enhance system performance by optimizing resource usage and reducing overhead.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the following typical operating-system structures: monolithic structure, layered systems, microkernel, modules, and hybrid systems. Monolithic systems offer performance but lack modularity. Layered systems improve debugging but add overhead. Microkernels enhance modularity and security but may impact performance. Modular systems offer flexibility but face integration challenges. Hybrid systems combine features but increase complexity.
Explain three general methods used to pass parameters from a user program to the operating system. Methods include using registers to store parameters, passing a block or table in memory, and using the stack for dynamic parameter management.
What is the difference between the linker and the loader? The linker combines object files into an executable by resolving dependencies, while the loader loads the executable into memory for execution, resolving dynamic references as needed.
Why is the separation of policy from mechanism important in the operating system? Separating policy from mechanism enables flexibility and adaptability by decoupling decision-making from implementation details, allowing updates without structural changes.
How is the performance of an operating system monitored and traced? How is the interaction between user level and kernel code debugged? OS performance is monitored using tools like performance counters and traced using dynamic analysis tools. Debugging user-level and kernel interactions often involves observing system calls and kernel events.
Explain the concepts of virtualization, emulation, and virtual machine. Virtualization abstracts physical hardware for multiple OS instances. Emulation simulates a hardware platform for legacy software. Virtual machines combine these by running multiple OS on shared resources with near-native performance.
Why does an operating system need two modes of operation? Dual modes ensure system stability and security by isolating user processes from privileged operations, allowing controlled access to critical resources.
Describe the relationship between an API, the system-call interface, and the operating system. APIs provide programmers with interfaces for system calls, which interact with the OS kernel to perform low-level tasks, ensuring a seamless application-to-kernel communication flow.
Identify the location of the long-term scheduler and the short-term scheduler on the diagram. The long-term scheduler manages the admission of processes into the ready queue from the 'new' state, located at the arrow labeled 'admitted.' The short-term scheduler dispatches processes from the 'ready' state to the 'running' state, at the arrow labeled 'scheduler dispatch.'
If the short-term scheduler runs every 100 nanoseconds, how frequently would you suggest the long-term scheduler run? The long-term scheduler should run less frequently than the short-term scheduler. For example, if the short-term scheduler runs every 100 nanoseconds, the long-term scheduler could run every few milliseconds, adjusting the degree of multiprogramming rather than constant process switching.
Explain how an interrupt works in the diagram, including potential sources of an interrupt, potential causes of an interrupt, and how the interrupt changes the currently running process. Interrupts, like I/O requests or timer expirations, stop the current process, placing it in the 'ready' or 'waiting' state. The CPU then handles the interrupt by switching control to the interrupt handler, ensuring process state preservation and efficient resource handling.
Describe the concept of a context switch. Explain why context-switching time varies from machine to machine. Context switches save the current process state (e.g., registers, program counter) and restore another process's state for execution. This switching depends on memory speed, the number of registers, and hardware support, resulting in varying context-switching times across machines.
Explain the difference between the two basic models of interprocess communication: shared memory and message passing. Shared memory uses a designated memory area for process communication, requiring synchronization to prevent conflicts. Message passing involves system calls for sending/receiving messages, avoiding synchronization issues but adding kernel overhead. Shared memory suits large data transfers, while message passing is ideal for distributed systems.
Explain why the first-come, first-served (FCFS) scheduling algorithm can cause short processes to wait for very long processes. FCFS is non-preemptive and executes processes in arrival order. Long-running CPU-bound processes delay shorter processes, causing the 'convoy effect.' This increases waiting time for short processes and reduces overall system efficiency.
Under what condition(s) are you able to prevent the occurrence of a deadlock? List and compare two deadlock-prevention approaches. Deadlocks can be prevented by negating one of the four conditions (mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption, circular wait). For instance, circular wait prevention assigns a total resource order. Alternatively, holding and waiting can be avoided by requiring all resources to be requested upfront, though this may reduce resource utilization.
What is the difference between deadlock prevention and deadlock detection? Describe one deadlock-detection approach. Deadlock prevention avoids conditions leading to deadlocks, while deadlock detection allows deadlocks but identifies them post-occurrence. A resource-allocation graph is a detection tool where cycles signify deadlocks, enabling resolution via process termination.
How is a wait-for graph used in deadlock detection? A wait-for graph represents processes as nodes and dependencies as directed edges. Cycles in the graph indicate deadlocks, as processes form a circular chain of dependencies, preventing any from proceeding. Detecting cycles helps resolve deadlocks.
Explain the advantages of allowing the user program to access the virtual addresses rather than the real physical addresses. Virtual addresses simplify memory management, allow for larger address spaces, improve security by isolating user programs from physical memory, and enable features like memory-mapped I/O.
Explain how dynamic loading differs from dynamic linking. Dynamic loading loads routines on demand during execution, reducing memory usage. Dynamic linking loads shared libraries at runtime, saving memory and disk space by sharing libraries across processes.
Describe how a paging-based memory-management scheme separates the programmer's view of memory from the actual physical memory. Paging separates the programmer's view of memory from physical memory by using virtual memory and translating virtual addresses into physical addresses via a page table.
Explain the concept of a hardware cache of a page table that uses TLB. A TLB (Translation Lookaside Buffer) caches recent translations of virtual page numbers to physical frames, reducing the need for frequent, time-consuming page table lookups.
Explain why a hierarchical paging-based approach is inappropriate for handling addresses greater than 32 bits. How would a hashed page table be used to deal with the issue? Hierarchical paging becomes inefficient for large address spaces due to excessive levels. Hashed page tables use hash functions to map virtual pages, minimizing memory overhead and complexity.
Describe the concept of demand paging and explain why it significantly impacts the performance of a computer system. Demand paging loads pages into memory only when needed, improving memory efficiency. However, frequent page faults caused by demand paging can significantly degrade system performance.
What is the difference between the enhanced second-chance page-replacement algorithm and the FIFO page-replacement algorithm? FIFO replaces the oldest page without considering usage. Enhanced second-chance uses reference and modification bits to make smarter decisions, reducing unnecessary page faults.
Explain why the minimum number of frames per process is defined by the computer architecture but the maximum number of frames per process is defined by the amount of available physical memory. The minimum frames are determined by architecture for proper instruction execution. Maximum frames are limited by available physical memory to prevent exhaustion.
How does the design of data structures and program structures in a user program impact the performance of demand paging? Efficient data structures with good locality of reference reduce page faults, improving demand paging performance. Scattered access patterns increase faults and degrade performance.
How does the global page-replacement strategy ensure sufficient free memory to satisfy new requests? Global page replacement selects pages from all processes, ensuring a free-frame list for new requests, maintaining system-wide memory availability.
How do disk-scheduling algorithms impact the bandwidth of HDDs, the average response time, and the variance in response time? Disk-scheduling algorithms like SCAN improve bandwidth and response time by minimizing head movement. Variance in response time depends on the algorithm's efficiency.
Elaborate on the concepts of error detection and correction in memory systems. Error detection identifies issues using parity checks or checksums. Error correction, like ECC, fixes errors, ensuring data integrity in memory systems.
How do directory structures affect the performance of the file system? Directory structures influence file system performance by optimizing file search and retrieval. Hierarchical structures reduce search times compared to flat structures.
Explain how the concepts of buffering, caching, and spooling differ in an I/O system. Buffering manages data transfer rate mismatches, caching stores frequently accessed data, and spooling queues data for shared resources like printers.
Describe three advantages and three disadvantages of placing functionality in a device controller rather than in the kernel. Device controllers improve efficiency and reduce kernel complexity but increase hardware complexity and compatibility issues.
What factors influence the selection of a disk-scheduling algorithm? Factors include disk type, workload patterns, fairness, and system constraints. Algorithms like SCAN and C-SCAN optimize performance under specific conditions.
Phone Phone Phone.
Big Rule:
A federal court can exercise supplemental jurisdiction over a claim that meets the requirements of 1367(a), unless the exercise of jurisdiction would be barred by 1367(b) or barred at the courts discretion in the circumstances of 13679(c). 1367(a) provides the authority for the court to exercise supplemental jurisdiction over a claim that is so related to claim within original jurisdiction that can may be the same case or controversy, unless restricted by statute. 1367(b) gives exceptions to 1367(a), and 1367(c) gives a set of circumstances in which the exercise of jurisdiction is at the discretion of the court. 1367 is said to be a congressional response to Finley, which provided that a court can only have supplemental jurisdiction when expressly given authority from Congress. Gibbs.
Application
1367(a) gives the court the power to exercise supplemental jurisdiction over claims that are related enough to be considered the same case or controversy as a claim that has an independent basis for jurisdiction, unless such exercise is denied by statute. The claim that the claimant is attempting to get jurisdiction over needs to have a common nucleus of facts (Gibbs) such that it can be within the same case or controversy, to align with the authority granted to the courts by Article III, Section 2. [Apply facts]. The claim [does/does not] meet the requirements of 1367(a) because…
1367(b) states that the court can not have jurisdiction over claims from original plaintiffs in diversity cases against Rule 14, 19, 20, or 24 defendants; claims by persons proposed as plaintiffs under Rule 19; or claims by plaintiffs intervening under Rule 24, when the jurisdiction would be inconsistent with 1332. Using these joinder rules to avoid 1332’s complete diversity rules would be against the public policy rationale for complete diversity, and the case would not need to be in federal court. [apply facts]. The court would [be barred/not be barred] from exercising jurisdiction over this claim because [facts fit/don’t fit one of the exceptions]
1367(c) gives four circumstances under which a court use discretion in deciding to use the power given it by 1367(a): the claim is a novel state issue, the state claim predominates the federal issue, the federal claims that had original jurisdiction have been dismissed, or other exceptional circumstances that give a compelling reason. A novel state issue is an issue that would provide significant value to the court system of a state, such as an issue that has not been resolved in the state court that has original jurisdiction. A claim is seen as predominating over the federal claim when it takes on stronger significance in the resolution of the controversy. When the court has dismissed the claims that have independent bases of jurisdiction, there is no original jurisdiction in the case or controversy. Lastly, the court may see other compelling reasons relating to judicial efficiency, state court positioning to answer the question, or litigant convenience. [apply facts]. The court [can/cannot] use discretion in deciding whether to exercise jurisdiction over the nonfederal claim.
Rule
A federal court can have subject matter jurisdiction over if the jurisdictional requirements of Article III, Section 2, and U.S.C. Section 1332 are fulfilled. Article III, Section 2 gives the courts broad authority to have subject matter jurisdiction over cases between citizens of different states. Section 1332 gives a narrower authority that requires complete diversity and sets a minimum amount in controversy requirement.
Application
Diversity jurisdiction requires both constitutional and statutory authority. Article III, Section 2 sets a diversity of citizenship requirement, which has been interpreted as meaning minimum diversity. Minimum diversity is present in a suit when there is at least one party that is diverse in residency from the opposing parties. [apply]. [conclude].
There is also the analysis of Section 1332, the statutory requirement, which has a diversity requirement of citizenship and an amount in controversy requirement. 1332(a) grants authority to exercise subject matter jurisdiction over four circumstances, which are claims between (1) citizens of different states, (2) citizens of a state and subjects of a foreign state, (3) citizens of different states with joined parties that are subjects of foreign states, and (4) a plaintiff foreign state and citizens of a state or states. Citizenship is determined by where a United States citizen is domiciled. The diversity requirement for 1332 is different from that of Article III because the statute has been interpreted as meaning complete diversity. This means that there can be no common residency between parties on opposing sides of the suit. [apply]. [conclude].
Finally, Section 1332 has an amount in controversy requirement that says the amount in controversy must be in excess of $75,000, exclusive of costs and interest. [apply]. [conclude].
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public class { public void get() { int var = 0; var.get(); while (var < 10) { if (var == 5) { break; } else { var = var + 1; var.get(); } } return; } } private class { protected void set() { string var = "string"; var.set(); if (var != null) { var = var + "more"; var.set(); } else { var = "string"; } } } static class { void get() { bool var = true; var.get(); if (var == true) { var = false; var.get(); } else { var = true; } } } namespace { using static; var.get(); public class { public void get() { int var = 0; var.get(); for (int i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 1) { switch (i) { case 1: break; var.get(); default: continue; } var.get(); } } } } abstract class { public virtual void get() { int var = 0; var.get(); do { var = var + 1; var.get(); } while (var <= 10); } } sealed class { public override void get() { int var = 0; var.get(); try { var = var / 0; var.get(); } catch { throw; } finally { var = 0; var.get(); } } } interface { void get(); void set(); var.get(); } struct { int var; var.get(); } enum { var } delegate void get(); event get set; var.get(); lock (this) { var = 0; var.get(); } readonly int var = 0; var.get(); const int var = 0; var.get(); dynamic var = 0; var var = 0; var.get(); var = var ?? 0; var = var?.get(); var.get(); byte var = 0; sbyte var = 0; short var = 0; var.get(); ushort var = 0; uint var = 0; long var = 0; var.get(); ulong var = 0; float var = 0.0f; var.get(); double var = 0.0; decimal var = 0.0m; char var = 'c'; var.get(); bool var = true; bool var = false; base.get(); this.set(); var.get(); params int[] var = new int[]; foreach (int var in var) { if (var > 0) { continue; var.get(); } else { break; var.get(); } } } async void get() { await get(); var.get(); } unchecked { int var = 0; var.get(); } checked { int var = 0; var.get(); } unsafe { fixed (int* var = &var) { *var = 0; var.get(); } } volatile int var = 0; var.get(); partial class { partial void get(); var.get(); } extern void get(); in var var = 0; var.get(); as var var = 0; is var var = 0; var.get(); nameof(var); operator +(int var, int var); var.get(); event var get; delegate void get(); interface { void get(); void set(); var.get(); } abstract class { public abstract void get(); var.get(); } override void get() { base.get(); var.get(); } virtual void set() { this.set(); var.get(); } get(); set(); get(); set(); get(); set(); var.get(); public protected internal private class { } using namespace; using static; var.get(); using @; @interface; @class; @struct; var.get(); @enum; @delegate; @event; @operator; @nameof; @var; var.get(); $"string"; $"string"; $"string"; var.get(); [] varArray; varArray[0] = var; var.get(); () => { }; var.get(); {} varDict; var.get(); ; var.get(); , var.get(); . var.get(); = var.get(); + var.get(); - var.get(); * var.get(); / var.get(); == var.get(); != var.get(); > var.get(); < var.get(); >= var.get(); <= var.get(); && var.get(); || var.get(); ! var.get(); ? var.get(); : var.get(); => var.get();
Zinsvolgorde in het Nederlands is een belangrijk onderwerp om goed te begrijpen, omdat het bepaalt hoe je een zin logisch en duidelijk kunt opbouwen. In een hoofdzin staat het werkwoord altijd op de tweede plaats. Bijvoorbeeld: Ik eet een appel. De volgorde is hier onderwerp, werkwoord en rest van de zin. Als er een ander zinsdeel vooraan staat, zoals een tijdsbepaling, schuift het onderwerp naar de derde plaats. Bijvoorbeeld: Morgen ga ik naar de markt. Het werkwoord blijft echter altijd op de tweede plaats staan.
Bij een bijzin verandert de volgorde. Het werkwoord staat dan meestal aan het einde van de zin. Bijvoorbeeld: Ik denk dat hij vandaag niet naar school gaat. Hier zie je dat de volgorde onderwerp, rest en werkwoord is in de bijzin. Dit wordt vaak de SOV-volgorde genoemd, wat staat voor Subject-Object-Verb. Een ander belangrijk punt is de positie van het persoonsvorm. Als je een bijzin met een hoofdzin combineert, verbind je die vaak met een voegwoord zoals omdat, hoewel, of dat. Bijvoorbeeld: Omdat het regent, blijf ik thuis. Het voegwoord plaatst het werkwoord aan het einde van de bijzin.
In vragen is de volgorde weer anders. In een vraag staat het werkwoord vaak vooraan. Bijvoorbeeld: Kom je morgen naar het feest? Hier zie je dat het werkwoord direct gevolgd wordt door het onderwerp. Dit noemen we de inversie. In een lange zin met meerdere werkwoorden, zoals in de voltooide tijd, is de volgorde iets ingewikkelder. Bijvoorbeeld: Hij heeft gisteren een nieuwe fiets gekocht. Hier staat de persoonsvorm (heeft) op de tweede plaats, terwijl het voltooid deelwoord (gekocht) aan het einde van de zin staat.
Bij zinnen met modale werkwoorden, zoals kunnen, willen of moeten, volgt het hoofdwerkwoord vaak aan het einde van de zin. Bijvoorbeeld: Ik moet morgen vroeg opstaan. Hier staat het modale werkwoord (moet) op de tweede plaats en het hoofdwerkwoord (opstaan) aan het einde. Als er een scheidbaar werkwoord in de zin staat, splits je dit vaak op. Bijvoorbeeld: Ik neem mijn jas mee. Hier staat de stam van het werkwoord (neem) op de tweede plaats en het prefix (mee) aan het einde. In bijzinnen blijven scheidbare werkwoorden echter samen. Bijvoorbeeld: Hij zegt dat hij zijn jas meeneemt.
Bij zinnen met tijd, plaats en andere zinsdelen is het belangrijk de volgorde te onthouden. Meestal is het tijd-plaats-manier. Bijvoorbeeld: Morgen ga ik met de fiets naar school. Hier zie je eerst de tijd (morgen), dan de manier (met de fiets), en tenslotte de plaats (naar school). Dit helpt om een zin logisch en gestructureerd te maken.
Als je oefent met zinsvolgorde, is het handig om steeds na te denken over wat het belangrijkste deel van de zin is. Zet het werkwoord altijd op de juiste plek en pas de volgorde aan op basis van de context. Schrijf regelmatig zinnen, vergelijk ze, en verbeter waar nodig. Oefening baart kunst.
Aristoteles befasst sich mit der Frage nach der idealen Staatsform, deren Ziel das gute Leben sein soll. Dazu erläutert er zunächst die Zusammensetzung des Staates. Nach Aristoteles ist der Mensch ein „zoon politikon“, also ein staatenbildendes Wesen. Der Mensch ist von Natur aus Teil einer Gemeinschaft.
Die kleinste Einheit im Staat bildet das Haus, das aus Mann und Frau bzw. Herr und Diener besteht. Die über einen Tag hinausreichenden Bedürfnisse erfüllt das Dorf, das sich aus Häusern zusammensetzt. Mehrere Dörfer bilden den Staat. Außerhalb der Gemeinschaft kann nur ein schlechtes Wesen oder ein göttliches Wesen leben.
Um darzulegen, welche Regierungsform die beste ist, vergleicht Aristoteles zunächst gute und schlechte Verfassungen. Gute Verfassungen, wie die Monarchie, Aristokratie und Politie, handeln zum Wohl der Gemeinschaft, während schlechte Regierungen wie Tyrannei, Demokratie oder Oligarchie nur den eigenen Vorteil im Blick haben.
Als beste Regierungsform erkennt Aristoteles die Politie, in der die Mittleren herrschen. Diese Mittleren verfügen über ein mittleres Vermögen, wodurch sie nicht zu unterwürfig und nicht profitorientiert sind. Aristoteles ist der Auffassung, dass man am besten der Vernunft gehorcht, wenn man genug zum Leben hat und der Gemeinschaft dient.
Entschuldigung für das Missverständnis! Hier ist der gesamte Text in Absätzen unterteilt, jeweils mit ca. 45 Wörtern:
Aristoteles befasst sich mit der Frage nach der idealen Staatsform, deren Ziel das gute Leben sein soll. Dazu erläutert er zunächst die Zusammensetzung des Staates. Nach Aristoteles ist der Mensch ein „zoon politikon“, also ein staatenbildendes Wesen. Der Mensch ist von Natur aus Teil einer Gemeinschaft.
Die kleinste Einheit im Staat bildet das Haus, das aus Mann und Frau bzw. Herr und Diener besteht. Die über einen Tag hinausreichenden Bedürfnisse erfüllt das Dorf, das sich aus Häusern zusammensetzt. Mehrere Dörfer bilden den Staat. Außerhalb der Gemeinschaft kann nur ein schlechtes Wesen oder ein göttliches Wesen leben.
Um darzulegen, welche Regierungsform die beste ist, vergleicht Aristoteles zunächst gute und schlechte Verfassungen. Gute Verfassungen, wie die Monarchie, Aristokratie und Politie, handeln zum Wohl der Gemeinschaft, während schlechte Regierungen wie Tyrannei, Demokratie oder Oligarchie nur den eigenen Vorteil im Blick haben.
Als beste Regierungsform erkennt Aristoteles die Politie, in der die Mittleren herrschen. Diese Mittleren verfügen über ein mittleres Vermögen, wodurch sie nicht zu unterwürfig und nicht profitorientiert sind. Aristoteles ist der Auffassung, dass man am besten der Vernunft gehorcht, wenn man genug zum Leben hat und der Gemeinschaft dient.
Ich hoffe, das entspricht deinen Erwartungen. Lass mich wissen, ob du noch Anpassungen wünschst!
Aristoteles befasst sich mit der Frage nach der idealen Staatsform, deren Ziel das gute Leben sein soll. Dazu erläutert er zunächst die Zusammensetzung des Staates. Nach Aristoteles ist der Mensch ein „zoon politikon“, also ein staatenbildenes Wesen. Das heißt, dass der Mensch ist von Natur aus Teil einer Gemeinschaft. Die kleinste EInheit im Staat bildet das Haus welches aus Mann und Frau bzw. Herr und Diener besteht. Die über einen Tag hinausreichenden Bedürfnisse erfüllt das Dorf, das sich aus Häusern zusammensetzt. Mehrere Dörfer bilden den Staat. Außerhalb der Gemeinschaft kann nur ein schlechtes Wesen oder ein Wesen leben, das mehr als ein Mensch, also göttlich ist. Um darzulegen, welche Regierungsform die beste ist, vergleicht Aristoteles zunächtst gute und schlechte Verfassungen. Gute Verfassungen, wie die Monarchie, Aristokratie und Politie handeln zum Wohl der Gemeinschaft, während schlechte Regierungen wie Tyrannei, Demokratie nur den eigenen Vorteil im Blick haben. Als beste Regierungsform erkennt Aristoteles die Politie, in der die Mittleren herrschen. Die Mittleren haben verfügen über ein mittleres Vermögen, wodurch sie nicht zu unterwürfig und nicht profitorientiert sind. Aristoteles ist der Auffassung, dass wenn man genug zum Leben hat, man am leichtesten der Vernunft gehorcht und somit der Gemeinschaf am besten nützt.
Acoustic neuroma- A benign tumor of the vestibular nerve in the internal auditory canal.
Amblyopia- Also known as lazy eye.
Anisocoria- Condition of unequal pupil size.
Anosmia- Loss of the sense of smell.
Aphakia- Condition of no lens.
Audiologist- Specialist who studies, diagnoses, and treats hearing-related issues.
Audiology- Medical specialty that studies hearing and hearing impairment.
Audiometry- The testing of the acuity of the sense of hearing.
Binocular- The use of both eyes to create one composite image.
Blepharitis- Inflammation of eyelids.
Blepharoplasty- Surgical repair of the eyelid.
Blepharoptosis- Drooping of the upper eyelid.
Cataract- A condition in which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy.
Conductive Hearing Loss- Hearing loss associated with disruption of sound through the outer/mid ear, such as perforation to the eardrum.
Conjunctivitis- Inflammation or infection of the conjunctiva; also called pinkeye.
Dacryocystitis- Inflammation of the tear (lacrimal) sac.
Dacryocystorhinostomy- Creation of an artificial opening between the lacrimal sac and the nose (to restore drainage).
Diabetic Retinopathy- Disease of the retina caused by diabetes mellitus. The retinal veins dilate, leading to swelling as fluid leaks from blood vessels into the retina.
Diplopia- Double vision.
Endophthalmitis- Inflammation within the eye.
Epistaxis- Nosebleed.
Glaucoma- A condition in which increased pressure in the eye leads to progressive vision loss.
Hyperopia- Farsightedness.
Iridectomy- Excision of part of the iris.
Iritis- Inflammation of the iris.
Keratitis- Inflammation of the cornea.
Keratomalacia- Degeneration of the cornea.
Keratoplasty- Surgical replacement of the cornea.
Kinesthesia- Sense of body movement based on sensation in the skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, and the skin.
Labyrinthitis- Inflammation of the inner ear (labyrinth).
Macular Degeneration- Progressive damage of a portion of the retina known as the macula. Central vision is lost while peripheral is maintained.
Mastoidectomy- Excision of the mastoid bone.
Mastoiditis- Inflammation of the mastoid bone.
Mechanoreceptor- A sensory neuron that responds to mechanical pressure.
Myopia- Nearsightedness.
Myringoplasty- Surgical repair of the tympanic membrane.
Nasopharyngeal- Pertaining to the nose and pharynx (throat).
Nociceptors- Sensory neurons that respond to pain.
Nystagmus- A condition whereby involuntary repetitive movements of one or both eyes make it impossible to fixate on a single object.
Ophthalmia neonatorum- Conjunctivitis in newborns (severe).
Ophthalmologist- A doctor who has special training in diagnosing and treating eye problems.
Ophthalmology- A surgical specialty focused on the structure, function, and surgery of the eye.
Ophthalmopathy- Disease of the eye.
Ophthalmoplegia- Paralysis of one or more eye muscles.
Ophthalmoscope- Instrument used to view the inside of the eye.
Ophthalmoscopy- An exam of the fundus of the eye using a magnifying lens and light.
Optometrist- A specialist who diagnoses, treats, and manages diseases and disorders of the eye.
Optometry- The professional practice of eye and vision care that involves measuring vision.
Otalgia- Pain in the ear.
Otitis Media- Inflammation of the middle ear canal that involves the eardrum.
Otitis Externa- Inflammation of the external ear canal. Also known as swimmer's ear.
Otorhinolaryngologist- A doctor who has special training in diagnosing and treating diseases of the ear, nose, and throat.
Otomycosis- Fungal infection of the external ear.
Otosclerosis- Hardening of the ear due to new bone formation of the inner ossicles.
Otoscope- Instrument used to view the ear.
Otoscopy- Process of viewing the ear canal and eardrum.
Pharyngitis- Inflammation of the pharynx.
Photophobia- A condition in which the eyes are more sensitive than normal to light.
Proprioception- Sense of position and movement of the body.
Retinoblastoma- Cancer that forms in the tissues of the retina.
Retinopathy- Disease of the retina.
Retinoscopy- Process of determining the refractive state of the eye.
Rhinitis- Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose.
Rhinorrhea- Excess nasal drainage; also called a “runny nose.”
Sensorineural Hearing Loss- Hearing loss associated with damage to the neural structures. This is usually permanent.
Sinusitis- Inflammation of the sinuses.
Stapedectomy- Excision of the stapes.
Strabismus- A condition where the affected eye rotates due to mismatched eye coordination.
Stye- Infection of an oil gland of the eyelid (hordeolum).
Thermoreceptors- Specialized neurons that respond to changes in temperature.
Tonometer- Instrument used to measure pressure (within the eye).
Tonometry- Process of measuring pressure (within the eye).
Tonsillitis- Inflammation of the tonsils.
Tympanic membrane- Ear drum.
Tympanoplasty- Surgical repair of the tympanic membrane.
Visceral (sense)- Sense associated with the internal organs.
Visual acuity- Sharpness of vision.
Xerophthalmia- Condition of dry eye.
Vision is the special sense of sight that is based on the transduction of light stimuli received through the eyes. The eyes are located within either orbit in the skull. The bony orbits surround the eyeballs, protecting them and anchoring the soft tissues of the eye. The eyelids, with lashes at their leading edges, help to protect the eye from abrasions by blocking particles that may land on the surface of the eye.
The inner surface of each lid is a thin membrane known as the palpebral conjunctiva. The conjunctiva extends over the sclera, connecting the eyelids to the eyeball. Tears are produced by the lacrimal gland, located beneath the lateral edges of the nose. Tears produced by this gland flow through the lacrimal duct to the medial corner of the eye where the tears flow over the conjunctiva, washing away foreign particles.
Movement of the eye within the orbit is accomplished by the contraction of six extraocular muscles that originate from the bones of the orbit and insert into the surface of the eyeball. Four of the muscles are arranged at the cardinal points around the eye and are named for those locations. They are the: superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, lateral rectus.
When each of these muscles contracts, the eye moves toward the contracting muscle. For example, when the superior rectus contracts, the eye rotates to look up. The eye itself is a hollow sphere composed of three layers of tissue:
The outermost layer is the fibrous tunic, which includes the white sclera and clear cornea. The sclera accounts for five-sixths of the surface of the eye, most of which is not visible, though humans are unique compared with many other species in having so much of the “white of the eye” visible. The transparent cornea covers the anterior tip of the eye and allows light to enter the eye.
The middle layer of the eye is the vascular tunic, which is mostly composed of the choroid, ciliary body, and iris. The choroid is a layer of highly vascularized connective tissue that provides a blood supply to the eyeball. The choroid is posterior to the ciliary body, a muscular structure that is attached to the lens by zonule fibers. (tiny thread-like fibers that hold the eye's lens firmly in place) These two structures bend the lens, allowing it to focus light on the back of the eye. Overlaying the ciliary body, and visible in the anterior eye, is the iris—the colored part of the eye. The iris is a smooth muscle that opens or closes the pupil, which is the hole at the center of the eye that allows light to enter. The iris constricts the pupil in response to bright light and dilates the pupil in response to dim light.
The innermost layer of the eye is the neural tunic, or retina, which contains the nervous tissue responsible for photoreception.
The eye is also divided into two cavities: The anterior cavity and the posterior cavity. The anterior cavity is the space between the cornea and lens, including the iris and ciliary body. It is filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humor. The posterior cavity is the space behind the lens that extends to the posterior side of the interior eyeball, where the retina is located. The posterior cavity is filled with a more viscous fluid called the vitreous humor.
The retina is composed of several layers and contains specialized cells for the initial processing of visual stimuli. The photoreceptors (rods and cones) change their membrane potential when stimulated by light energy. The change in membrane potential alters the number of neurotransmitters that the photoreceptor cells release onto bipolar cells in the outer synaptic layer. It is the bipolar cell in the retina that connects a photoreceptor to a retinal ganglion cell (RGC) in the inner synaptic layer. There, amacrine cells additionally contribute to retinal processing before an action potential is produced by the RGC. The axons of RGCs, which lie at the innermost layer of the retina, collect at the optic disc and leave the eye at the optic nerve. Because these axons pass through the retina, there are no photoreceptors at the very back of the eye where the optic nerve begins. This creates a “blind spot” in the retina and a corresponding blind spot in our visual field.
Photoreceptors in the retina (rods and cones) are located behind the axons, RGCs, bipolar cells, and retinal blood vessels. A significant amount of light is absorbed by these structures before the light reaches the photoreceptor cells. At the exact center of the retina is a small area known as the fovea. At the fovea, the retina lacks the supporting cells and blood vessels, and only contains photoreceptors. Therefore, visual acuity is greatest at the fovea. This is because the fovea is where the least amount of incoming light is absorbed by other retinal structures. As one moves in either direction from this central point of the retina, visual acuity drops significantly.
There are three types of cone opsins that are sensitive to different wavelengths of light and provide us with color vision. By comparing the activity of the three different cones, the brain can extract color information from visual stimuli. For example, a bright blue light that has a wavelength of approximately 450 nm would activate the “red” cones minimally, the “green” cones marginally, and the “blue” cones predominantly. The relative activation of the three different cones is calculated by the brain, which perceives the color as blue. However, cones cannot react to low-intensity light, and rods do not sense the color of light. Therefore, our low-light vision is, in essence, in grayscale. In other words, in a dark room, everything appears as a shade of gray. If you think that you can see colors in the dark, it is most likely because your brain knows what color something is and is relying on that memory.
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Aristoteles befasst sich mit der Frage nach der idealen Staatsform, deren Ziel das gute Leben sein soll. Dazu erläutert er zunächst die Zusammensetzung des Staates. Nach Aristoteles ist der Mensch ein „zoon politikon“, also ein staatenbildendes Wesen. Der Mensch ist von Natur aus Teil einer Gemeinschaft.
Die kleinste Einheit im Staat bildet das Haus, das aus Mann und Frau bzw. Herr und Diener besteht. Die über einen Tag hinausreichenden Bedürfnisse erfüllt das Dorf, das sich aus Häusern zusammensetzt. Mehrere Dörfer bilden den Staat. Außerhalb der Gemeinschaft kann nur ein schlechtes Wesen oder ein göttliches Wesen leben.
Um darzulegen, welche Regierungsform die beste ist, vergleicht Aristoteles zunächst gute und schlechte Verfassungen. Gute Verfassungen, wie die Monarchie, Aristokratie und Politie, handeln zum Wohl der Gemeinschaft, während schlechte Regierungen wie Tyrannei, Demokratie oder Oligarchie nur den eigenen Vorteil im Blick haben.
Als beste Regierungsform erkennt Aristoteles die Politie, in der die Mittleren herrschen. Diese Mittleren verfügen über ein mittleres Vermögen, wodurch sie nicht zu unterwürfig und nicht profitorientiert sind. Aristoteles ist der Auffassung, dass man am besten der Vernunft gehorcht, wenn man genug zum Leben hat und der Gemeinschaft dient.
Along with audition, the inner ear is responsible for encoding information about equilibrium. The cells that sense head position, head movement, and body motion are located within the vestibule of the inner ear. Head position is sensed by otolith organs, (the two membranous sacs of the vestibule, the utricle and the saccule) whereas head movement is sensed by the semicircular canals. The neural signals generated in the vestibular ganglion are transmitted through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brainstem and cerebellum.
Rotational Coding by Semicircular Canals. Rotational movement of the head is encoded by the hair cells in the base of the semicircular canals. As one of the canals moves in an arc with the head, the internal fluid moves in the opposite direction, causing the cupula (a gelatinous membrane overlying the crista ampullaris of the semicircular canal) and stereocilia (miniscule hair-like protrusions on the surface of sensory cells) to bend. The movement of two canals within a plane results in information about the direction in which the head is moving, and activation of all six canals can give a very precise indication of head movement in three dimensions.
Somatosensation is considered a general sense, as opposed to the special senses discussed in this section. Somatosensation is the group of sensory modalities that are associated with touch, proprioception, (sense movement, action and location) and interoception. (the perception of internal signals from the body) These modalities include pressure, vibration, light touch, tickle, itch, temperature, pain, proprioception, and kinesthesia. This means that its receptors are not associated with a specialized organ, but are instead spread throughout the body in a variety of organs. Many of the somatosensory receptors are located in the skin, but receptors are also found in muscles, tendons, joint capsules, ligaments, and in the walls of visceral organs.
The two types of somatosensory signals that are transduced by free nerve endings are pain and temperature. Temperature receptors are stimulated when local temperatures differ from body temperature. Some thermoreceptors are sensitive to just cold and others to just heat. Nociception is the sensation of potentially damaging stimuli. Mechanical, chemical, or thermal stimuli beyond a set threshold will elicit painful sensations. Stressed or damaged tissues release chemicals that activate receptor proteins in the nociceptors.
For example, the sensation of heat associated with spicy foods involves capsaicin, the active molecule in hot peppers. Capsaicin molecules bind to a transmembrane ion channel in nociceptors that is sensitive to temperatures above 37°C (98.6°F). The dynamics of capsaicin binding with this transmembrane ion channel are unusual in that the molecule remains bound for a long time. Because of this, it will decrease the ability of other stimuli to elicit pain sensations through the activated nociceptor. For this reason, capsaicin can be used as a topical analgesic, such as in products such as Icy Hot.
