O protos katagegrammenos eortasmos ton Olympiakon Agonon itan stin Olympia, to 776 pX. Einai schedon sigouro oti afti den itan kai i proti fora pou ginontan oi agones. Tote oi agones itan mono topikoi kai diexagotan mono ena agonisma, i koursa tou stadiou.
Ο πρωτος καταγεγραμμενος εορτασμος των Ολυμπιακων Αγωνων ηταν στην Ολυμπια, το 776 π.Χ. Ειναι σχεδον σιγουρο οτι αυτη δεν ηταν και η πρωτη φορα που γινονταν οι Αγωνες. Τοτε οι Αγωνες ηταν μονο τοπικοι και διεξαγοταν μόνο ενα αγωνισμα, η κουρσα του σταδιου.
O protos katagegrammenos eortasmos ton Olympiakon Agonon itan stin Olympia, to 776 pX. Einai schedon sigouro oti afti den itan kai i proti fora pou ginontan oi Agones. Tote oi Agones itan mono topikoi kai diexagotan mono ena agonisma, i koursa tou stadiou.
O protos katagegrammenos eortasmos ton Olympiakon Agonon itan stin Olympia, to 776 pX. Einai schedon sigouro oti afti den itan kai i proti fora pou ginontan oi Agones. Tote oi Agones itan mono topikoi kai diexagotan mono ena agonisma, i koursa tou stadiou.
Ο πρώτος καταγεγραμμένος εορτασμός των Ολυμπιακών Αγώνων ήταν στην Ολυμπία, το 776 π.Χ. Είναι σχεδόν σίγουρο ότι αυτή δεν ήταν και η πρώτη φορά που γίνονταν οι Αγώνες. Τότε οι Αγώνες ήταν μόνο τοπικοί και διεξαγόταν μόνο ένα αγώνισμα, η κούρσα του σταδίου.
Bill Gates congratulates Donald Trump, JD Vance after reported Harris support: ‘I hope we can…' Big names in the tech industry rushed to congratulate Donald Trump on his victory in the US presidential election over Kamala Harris. Bill Gates is the latest tech mogul to enter that list. He shared his congratulatory message on several social media platforms, including Threads, Instagram, and X. Bill Gates reportedly donated $50 million to Donald Trump's rival, Kamala Harris, during the US election campaign. (AFP, Reuters) What did Bill Gates post? "Congratulations to President Trump and VP-elect Vance," the Microsoft co-founder wrote. He then expressed his hope of working with the president in the future to improve the lives of US citizens.
A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax, or another flammable solid substance such as tallow, that provides light, and in some cases, a fragrance. A candle can also provide heat or a method of keeping time. Candles have been used for over two millennia around the world, and were a significant form of indoor lighting until the invention of other types of light sources. Although electric light has largely made candle use nonessential for illumination, candles are still commonly used for functional, symbolic and aesthetic purposes and in specific cultural and religious settings. A variety of different materials have been developed in the modern era for making candles, including paraffin wax, which together with efficient production techniques, made candles affordable for the masses. Various devices can be used to hold candles, such as candlesticks, or candelabras, chandeliers, lanterns and sconces. A person who makes candles is traditionally known as a chandler.
A transcription service is a business which converts speech into a written or electronic text document. Transcription services are often provided for business, legal, or medical purposes. The most common type of transcription is from a spoken-language source into text such as a computer file suitable for printing as a document. Common examples are the proceedings of a court hearing such as a criminal trial by a court reporter or a physician's recorded voice notes (medical transcription). Some transcription businesses can send staff to events, speeches, or seminars, who then convert the spoken content into text. Some companies also accept recorded speech, either on cassette, CD, VHS, or as sound files. For a transcription service, various individuals and organizations have different rates and methods of pricing. Transcription companies primarily serve private law firms, local, state, and federal government agencies and courts, trade associations, meeting planners, and nonprofits.
A freelancer is a term commonly used for a person who is self-employed and is not necessarily committed to a particular employer long-term. Freelance workers are sometimes represented by a company or a temporary agency that resells freelance labor to clients. Others work independently or use professional associations or websites to get work. While the term "independent contractor" would be used in a higher register of English to designate the tax and employment classes of this type of worker, the term freelancing is most common in culture and creative industries and this term specifically motions to participation therein. Fields, professions, and industries where freelancing is predominant includes music, writing, acting, computer programming, web design, graphic design, translating and illustrating, film and video production and other forms of piece work which some cultural theorists consider as central to the cognitive-cultural economy.
The spread of religion, aided by the increase in trade, often acted as a unifying social force. Throughout East Asia, the development of Neo-Confucianism solidified a cultural identity. Islam created a new cultural world known as Dar al-Islam, which transcended political and linguistic boundaries in Asia and Africa. Christianity and the Catholic Church served as unifying forces in Europe.
Centralized empires like the Arab Caliphates and the Song Dynasty built on the successful models of the past, while decentralized areas (Western Europe and Japan) developed political organization to more effectively deal with their unique issues. The peoples of the Americas saw new, large-scale political structures develop, such as the Inca Empire in the Andes and the Mississippian culture in North America.
The movement of people greatly altered the world politically and demographically. Traveling groups, such as the Turks and Mongols, disrupted much of Asia’s existing political structure. Turkic peoples founded the Mumluk and Delhi Sultanates. The recovery from the Mongol period introduced political structures that defined many areas for centuries to follow.
There was tremendous growth in long-distance trade. Technological developments such as the compass improved shipbuilding technology, and gunpowder shaped the development of the world. Trade through the Silk Road, the Indian Ocean, the trans-Saharan routes, and the Mediterranean Sea led to the spread of ideas, religions, and technology. Interregional cultural exchanges, represented by early world travelers like Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo, increased due to the Mongol Conquests.
War, disease, and famine caused massive social and political upheaval throughout Eurasia. The Black Death killed over a third of the European population, and the resulting labor shortfall increased the bargaining power of peasants, diminishing the system of feudalism. The Mongol Conquests led to a massive death toll from Korea to Russia to the Middle East, weakening many regions for centuries to come as European powers expanded outward.
Western Europe and China saw significant economic and political recoveries. The Italian city-states grew prosperous enough to support the burgeoning Renaissance, which was partly inspired by ancient Greek works recovered from Islamic scholars. The Ming Dynasty experienced a cultural flowering that resulted in great works of art. The Ming also supported major naval expeditions by Zheng He.
Key Terms: Period 1 (1200-1450)
Remember that the AP World History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP exam, including how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.
Cultural Developments and Belief Systems
Neo-Confucianism: Popular during the Tang Dynasty; fused elements of Buddhism and Confucianism.
Catholic Church: The largest of the three main branches of Christianity; centered in Rome and led by the pope; found most often in Europe, the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of East Asia.
Eastern Orthodox Church: The third largest of the three main branches of Christianity; originally based in the Byzantine Empire; found most often in Russia, Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and parts of Central Asia.
Shi’a: One of the two main branches of Islam; rejects the first three Sunni caliphs and regards Ali, the fourth caliph, as Muhammad’s first true successor; most commonly found in Iran, but otherwise constitutes 10 to 15 percent of Muslims worldwide.
Sunni: One of the two main branches of Islam; commonly described as orthodox and differs from Shi’a in its understanding of the Sunnah and in its acceptance of the first three caliphs; is by far the most common branch of Islam worldwide.
Civilizations in the Americas
Chinampa: A form of Mesoamerican agriculture in which farmers cultivated crops in rectangular plots of land on lake beds; hosted corns, beans, chilis, squash, tomatoes, and more; provided up to seven harvests per year.
Mit’a: A mandatory public service system in the Inca Empire requiring all people below the age of 50 to serve for two months out of the year; not to be confused with the mita, a forced labor system practiced by conquistadors in the former Inca Empire.
Civilizations in East Asia
Mandate of Heaven: Ancient Chinese concept stating that the right to rule was granted by the heavens; used to explain the rise of every Chinese dynasty, including the Qing in 1644.
Grand Canal: World’s longest canal, connecting the fertile Huang He River to the highly populated cities in the north; allowed grain to be shipped easily.
Champa rice: Introduced to China from Vietnam; allowed the Chinese to have two harvests per year, dramatically improving output; combined with an improved infrastructure, led to a significant growth of the Chinese population.
Islamic Golden Age
Al-Andalus: Islamic state located in modern-day Spain; led by the Berbers; renowned for its achievements in science, mathematics, and trade.
Astrolabe: Introduced to the Islamic world in the 700s, where it was perfected by mathematicians; used by astronomers and navigators to determine latitude through inclination.
Trans-Saharan trade: Trade network starting in the 400s and 500s; thrived due to an organized network of camel caravans carrying gold, salt, cloth, slaves, and other valuables; allowed the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali to thrive, and as Islam spread to Africa, allowed its teachings to impact the lives of kings and traders.
Europe during the Late Middle Ages
Feudalism: Political and economic system that developed as a result of the decentralization and collapse of the Western Roman Empire; lords, usually noblemen, protected vassals in exchange for mandatory labor or military service; vassals received a fief, or grant of land.
Bills of exchange: Written guarantees of payment that were essentially the forerunners of modern-day bank checks; helped facilitate trade; known as sakk in the Islamic world; also used in China during this period.
Crusades: Holy wars launched by Pope Urban II in 1095 that called for Christians to reclaim the Holy Land of Israel from Muslims; its four campaigns, lasting over 100 years, were unsuccessful; stimulated European-Muslim trade and reintroduced Europeans to wisdom that had been last taught during the Classical period.
Nomadic and Traveling Empires
Ottomans: Group of Anatolian Turks who, in their dedication to Islam, attacked the weakening Byzantine Empire and captured Constantinople in 1453; expanded to create an empire in the Middle East and Southeast Europe; collapsed after World War I.
Mongols: Group of Central Asian nomads from Mongolia who, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, conquered large portions of the Asian continent; four empires, centered on Russia, China, Persia, and the Central Asian steppes, were led by Khan’s successors until the Mongol Empire collapsed into disunity and civil war.
Genghis Khan: Mongol clan leader who united the clans and made the Mongols the most feared force in Asia; under his leadership, the Mongol Empire expanded greatly into China, Persia, Central Asia, and Tibet; sons ruled the Four Khanates that followed; grandson, Kublai Khan, became leader of the Yuan Dynasty in 1271.
Civilizations in Africa
Mansa Musa: Ruling from 1312 to 1337, he was the most famous of the Mali emperors; capital city, Timbuktu, was a center of trade, culture, and education; most famous for going on pilgrimage to Mecca (a practice that few Muslims in his time actually did) carrying a large caravan with satchels of gold, which he used to fund schools and mosques across North Africa.
Swahili city-states: Cities in East Africa (present- day Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania) that became bustling ports due to interchanges between Bantu and Arab mariners; in an effort to facilitate trade, the Bantus created a hybrid language, Swahili, that allowed them to communicate with the Arabs (a language that is still spoken by over 80 million East Africans).
Interregional Economic and Cultural Exchange
Melaka: Located in modern-day Malaysia; port city that became a waystation for sea traders from China and India in the fourteenth century.
Bubonic plague: Disease that spread from China to Europe through rats and decimated Europe’s population; ended the feudal system and led many people to question religion; also known as the Black Plague or the Black Death.
Ibn Battuta: Islamic traveler who, in the four- teenth century, visited the kingdom of Mansa Musa in the Mali Empire; his writings stimulated an interest in African trade.
Marco Polo: Venetian merchant who spent over 20 years traveling the Silk Road through the Mongol Empire, where he actually served on the court of its ruler, Kublai Khan; his efforts stimulated interest in trade with China.
Recovery and Renaissance in Asia and Europe
Renaissance: A period of artistic and scien- tific self-discovery and relearning of Classi- cal wisdom, particularly from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries; stimulated by the Crusades and soldiers’ exposure to Muslim advances in math, science, and the arts; also led to questioning of the nature of religion and natural phenomena.
In matters of principal, stand like a rock; in matters of taste, swim with the current. Give up money, give up fame, give up science, give up earth itself and all it contains, rather than do an immoral act. And never suppose that in any situation, or under any circumstances, it is best for you to do a dishonorable thing. Whenever you are to do a thing, though it can never be known but to yourself, ask yourself how you would act were all the world looking at you, and act accordingly.
Duty, honor, country: Those three hallowed words reverently dictate what you ought to be, what you can be, what you will be. They are your rallying point to build courage when courage seems to fail, to regain faith when there seems to be little cause for faith, to create hope when hope becomes forlorn.
Article 5 of the Code of Conduct: When questioned, should I become a prisoner of war, I am required to give name, rank, Service number, and date of birth. I will evade answering further questions to the upmost of my ability. I will make no oral or written statements disloyal to my country and its allies or harmful to their cause.
Article 6 of the Code of Conduct: I will never forget that I am an American, fighting for freedom, responsible for my actions, and dedicated to the principles which made my country free. I will trust in my God and in the United States of America.
Sadness, a universal yet deeply personal emotion, often arrives unexpectedly, lingering as a shadow in life’s bright moments. It may arise from – loss, unmet expectations, or the inevitable passage of time, each adding a unique shade to its depth. Unlike fleeting happiness, sadness encourages pause, inviting introspection, and a profound connection to oneself. In a world that often prioritizes joy, sadness teaches us essential lessons in empathy, patience, and resilience. It reminds us of what truly matters, revealing people, and memories that hold genuine value. Through sadness, we gain a capacity for compassion, learning not only to heal ourselves, but also to support others in their silent battles. Embracing sadness, rather than dismissing it, we grow, finding it to be a fundamental thread in life’s tapestry that adds - richness, meaning, and depth to our understanding of joy.
"We are like the mechanism of a watch: Each part is essential," said brother Salomon. As in a watch, every part of the business moved in concert with every other, and the inner workings were invisible to the world, which only saw the movement of the hands. While other rich and powerful families suffered irrecoverable downturns during the tumultous first half of the nineteenth century, the tight-knit Rothschilds managed not only to preserve but to expand their unprecedented wealth.
In 1824 James Rothschild decided it was time to get married. This presented a problem for the Rothschild, since it meant incorporating an outsider into the Rothschild clan, an outsider who could betray its secrets. James therefore decided to marry within the family, and chose the daughter of his brother Salomon. The brothers were ecstatic this was the perfect solution to their marriage problems. James's choice now became the family policy: Two years later, Nathan married off his daughter to Salomon's son. In the years to come, the five brothers arranged eighteen matches among their children, sixteen of these being contracted between first cousins.
This widespread network, of course, opened the Rothschilds to the very danger of which their father had warned them: diffusion, division, dissension. They avoided this danger, and established themselves as the most powerful force in European finance and politics, by once again resorting to the strategy of the ghetto excluding outsiders, concentrating their forces. The Rothschilds established the fastest courier system in Europe, allowing them to get news of events before all their competitors. They held a virtual monopoly on information. And their internal communications and correspondence were written in Frankfurt Yiddish, and in a code that only the brothers could understand it. "Even the shewdest bankers cannot find their way through the Rothschild maze," admitted a financier who had tried to infiltrate the clan.
Once Mayer Amschel's sons controlled the family business, they decided that the key to wealth on a larger scale was to secure a foothold in the finances of Europe as a whole, rather than being tied to any one country or prince. Of the five brothers, Nathan had already opened up shop in London. In 1813 James moved to Paris. Amschel remained in Frankfurt, Salomon established himself in Vienna, and Karl, the youngest son, went to Naples. With each sphere of influence covered, they could tighten their hold on Europe's financial markets.
First, Mayer Amschel allied himself with one family, the powerful princes of Thurn und Taxis. Instead of spreading his services out, he made himself these princes' primary banker. Second, he entrusted none of his business to outsiders, using only his children and close relatives. The more unified and tight-knit the family, the more powerful it would become. Soon Mayer Amschel's five sons were running the business. And when Mayer Amschel lay dying, in 1812, he refused to name a principal heir, instead setting up all of his sons to continue the family tradition, so that they would stay united and would resist the dangers of diffusion and of infiltration by outsiders.
Observance Of The Law
The Rothschild banking family had humble beginnings in the Jewish ghetto of Frankfurt, Germany. The city's harsh laws made it impossible for Jews to mingle outside the ghetto, but the Jews had turned this into a virtue it made them self-reliant, and zealous to preserve their culture at all costs. Mayer Amschel, the first of the Rothschilds to accumulate wealth by lending money, in the late eighteenth century, well understood the power that comes from this kind of concentration and cohesion.
Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, is a way of recounting or paraphrasing what someone else has said, without using their exact words. In English, this usually means changing certain elements of the original sentence to match the context of the new speaker or situation. When moving from direct speech (the original words) to reported speech, we adjust elements like time expressions, place references, verb tenses, and pronouns to accurately convey the message. This transformation is essential for clarity and correctness, especially when reporting events in the past.
In reported speech, verb tenses often shift back to reflect the time at which the original statement was made, particularly when the reporting verb is in the past (e.g., He said). For instance, in direct speech, someone might say, “I am reading a book.” When we report this, it would change to “He said he was reading a book.” Here, the present continuous am reading becomes the past continuous was reading to match the reporting context. This shift in tenses is commonly referred to as “backshifting” and is typically necessary for sentences reported in the past tense. However, if the reporting verb is in the present (e.g., He says), backshifting is not required, and we may keep the original tenses.
Pronoun changes are also crucial in reported speech, as they ensure the sentence correctly reflects who is speaking or being referred to. Consider the statement, “I love my job.” If Maria said this, it would become “Maria said she loved her job” when reported. Here, I changes to she and my changes to her to make the sentence coherent for the reader or listener. These adjustments in pronouns are necessary for accurately representing who is involved in the original conversation and who is doing the reporting.
Time expressions frequently need adjustment as well. When reporting speech, expressions like today, yesterday, and tomorrow change to words that reflect the passage of time, such as that day, the day before, and the next day, respectively. For example, if someone says, “I will see you tomorrow,” in reported speech, this becomes, “He said he would see me the next day.” Adjusting time expressions in this way ensures that the reported sentence makes sense based on when the conversation is retold.
Place expressions like here and there may also change when converting direct to reported speech. For instance, if a person says, “I’ll meet you here,” we would report it as, “He said he would meet me there,” if the reporting takes place in a different location. This change helps orient the listener or reader to the new context of the reported conversation and avoids confusion about where events took place.
Another aspect to consider is the reporting of questions. When changing direct questions into reported questions, the structure often changes from question form to statement form. For example, “Where are you going?” becomes “She asked where he was going.” Note that question marks are removed in reported questions, and word order is adjusted as well. This shift is necessary because reported questions are statements about inquiries rather than direct questions themselves.
Commands and requests also undergo changes in reported speech. Rather than simply reporting the words, we use phrases like told or asked to introduce the command or request. For instance, “Close the door,” becomes, “He told me to close the door.” Here, told serves as the reporting verb, and we use the infinitive form, to close, to report the command. These adjustments convey the directive’s intent while maintaining correct grammar in reported form.
In summary, reported speech involves changing elements like verb tenses, pronouns, time and place expressions, and question structure to accurately reflect the context of the conversation. These modifications allow for clear communication, ensuring the listener or reader understands who is speaking and what was originally said. Mastering reported speech is an essential skill for expressing conversations that occurred in the past, retelling others’ words, or communicating in formal writing.
Happiness, often described as a fleeting emotion or a lasting state of mind is one of humanity's most cherished pursuits. It manifests differently for each individual some find it in simple pleasures like a warm meal or a gentle breeze while others seek it in accomplishments, relationships or self-discovery. Philosophers and psychologists alike have pondered the roots of happiness suggesting that it springs less from external circumstances and more from an inner sense of peace and purpose. Studies suggest that happiness is closely linked to gratitude, mindfulness and meaningful connections with others. However it is not a destination but a journey often cultivated by resilience and a positive mindset. True happiness lies in embracing both joys and challenges with equal grace, finding beauty in the present moment and nurturing a compassionate outlook toward oneself and the world.
