The temple I am going to build will be great, because our God is greater than all other gods.
Ascribe to the LORD, all you families of nations, ascribe to the LORD glory and strength. Ascribe to the LORD the glory due his name; bring an offering and come before him. Worship the LORD in the splendor of his holiness.
Nevertheless, for the sake of his servant David, the Lord was not willing to destroy Judah. He had promised to maintain a lamp for David and his descendants forever.
But will God really dwell on earth? The heavens, even the highest heaven, cannot contain you. How much less this temple I have built!
When your days are over and you rest with your ancestors, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, your own flesh and blood, and I will establish his kingdom. He is the one who will build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. I will be his father, and he will be my son. When he does wrong, I will punish him with a rod wielded by men, with floggings inflicted by human hands. But my love will never be taken away from him, as I took it away from Saul, whom I removed from before you. Your house and your kingdom will endure forever before me; your throne will be established forever.
But Samuel replied: “Does the LORD delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as much as in obeying the LORD? To obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed is better than the fat of rams.”
WOB 'the keyes of thy cheste awey fro me/it is myn good as well as thyn, pardee! he now is in his grave and in his cheste [coffin] "the governance of hous and lond"(l.813-814), Susanne Thomas- 'the wyf turns out to be a figure of extraordinary dominion and mastery' [Wife of Bath seems to equate control over finances/property to life and death, keys to thy cheste puns on ‘chest’, as in ‘don’t lock your heart away’ but the later use of chest has more fatal connotations, Violated male- 'Thy body, for to yelden in this place' '"Before the courte thanne preye I thee, sir knyght,"/[…] "that thou me take unto thy wife"' 'moore I oghte avised be/to whom I yeve my body for alwey' LIKE THE KNIGHT, the body is involved in the violation Wendy Scase- The knight is, "put into the same position as the woman he raped" [when he is forced to sleep with the old lady] [The wife of Bath’s tale includes men yielding control of their bodies, and their images, think about how these are linked] [Either this reflects an empowering subversal/proof, or masculine anxieties about women enacting revenge]
Aged meat: A "foul and old […] humble wyf" or "yong and fair" but attracting other men The desirability of a young wife, "oold fissh and yong flessh wolde I have", January wants a woman that is like a "pyk" rather than a "pykerel" (that is, mature and unpromiscuous), but also says that "old boef" is worse than "tender veal", this is potentially a double with the woman in the WOB's tale, who is virtuous as an old lady or beautiful as a young woman, and eventually becomes both 'make me a fayned appetit/ and yet in bacon hadde I nevere delit' 'OLD PRESERVED MEAT', LINKS TO MERCHANT'S TALE! Natalie Hanna "The comparison of a wife to food reflects not only Januarie's preoccupation with a wife's market-worth, but also his desire for her as one who can satisfy his sexual appetite" [Chaucer is concerned with sexual appetite, and the popular depiction of the age-gap relationship, the problem of wanting a partner who is sexually attractive but not promiscuous, serves to commodify the partner in both texts]
Wax: "a young thing may men gye [direct]/ risght as men may warm wex with handes plye" May crafts her "clyket" out of "warm wax", to open the gate disproving January's earlier claims about her moral malleability 'his fresshe May, his paradyse, his make', The double meaning of 'MAKE', partner and creation, links to warm wax image 'every signe that she kould make/Wel bet than Januarie, hir owne make' more punning on make [Attempting to shape May is revealed to be a misjudgement, Januarie tries to remake his ‘make’ in a suitable image, but he is unable to]
Chaucer- Ambiguous narration 'paradys terrestre' 'whether she thought it paradys or helle' January having sex with May, links to the 'paradyse' image about marriage and narrative ambiguity Jacqueline Tasioulas- "the author, Chaucer, creating a pilgrim Chaucer, who recounts the words of the Wife of Bath, which are taken from the clerics, and put in the mouths of men who, in fact, never uttered them" [The Merchant/Chaucer is very coy in his tale, and the Wife of Bath creates false narration, establishing the nature of relationships as fabricated narratives, like the ‘make’ image]
Reclaiming texts: WOB tears out leaves from her fifth husbands book 'I am a womman, nedes moot I speke,/Or elles swelle til myn herte breke/[…] sithen he seyde that we been jangleresses' Proserpine flips the narrative 'God bad us for to wexe and multiplye' "sith a man is moore resonable than womman is/ ye moste been suffrable" 'if wommen hadde written stories,/as clerkes han withinne her oratories,/They wolde han writen of men moore wikkednesse,/than al the mark of Adam may redresse' Wendy Scase "Jankyn is in control of the text [his book] and its interpretations"
WOB 'the keyes of thy cheste awey fro me/it is myn good as well as thyn, pardee! he now is in his grave and in his cheste [coffin] "the governance of hous and lond"(l.813-814), Susanne Thomas- 'the wyf turns out to be a figure of extraordinary dominion and mastery' [Wife of Bath seems to equate control over finances/property to life and death, keys to thy cheste puns on ‘chest’, as in ‘don’t lock your heart away’ but the later use of chest has more fatal connotations, Violated male- 'Thy body, for to yelden in this place' '"Before the courte thanne preye I thee, sir knyght,"/[…] "that thou me take unto thy wife"' 'moore I oghte avised be/to whom I yeve my body for alwey' LIKE THE KNIGHT, the body is involved in the violation Wendy Scase- The knight is, "put into the same position as the woman he raped" [when he is forced to sleep with the old lady] [The wife of Bath’s tale includes men yielding control of their bodies, and their images, think about how these are linked] [Either this reflects an empowering subversal/proof, or masculine anxieties about women enacting revenge] Aged meat: A "foul and old […] humble wyf" or "yong and fair" but attracting other men The desirability of a young wife, "oold fissh and yong flessh wolde I have", January wants a woman that is like a "pyk" rather than a "pykerel" (that is, mature and unpromiscuous), but also says that "old boef" is worse than "tender veal", this is potentially a double with the woman in the WOB's tale, who is virtuous as an old lady or beautiful as a young woman, and eventually becomes both 'make me a fayned appetit/ and yet in bacon hadde I nevere delit' 'OLD PRESERVED MEAT', LINKS TO MERCHANT'S TALE! Natalie Hanna "The comparison of a wife to food reflects not only Januarie's preoccupation with a wife's market-worth, but also his desire for her as one who can satisfy his sexual appetite" [Chaucer is concerned with sexual appetite, and the popular depiction of the age-gap relationship, the problem of wanting a partner who is sexually attractive but not promiscuous, serves to commodify the partner in both texts] Wax: "a young thing may men gye [direct]/ risght as men may warm wex with handes plye" May crafts her "clyket" out of "warm wax", to open the gate disproving January's earlier claims about her moral malleability 'his fresshe May, his paradyse, his make', The double meaning of 'MAKE', partner and creation, links to warm wax image 'every signe that she kould make/Wel bet than Januarie, hir owne make' more punning on make [Attempting to shape May is revealed to be a misjudgement, Januarie tries to remake his ‘make’ in a suitable image, but he is unable to] Chaucer- Ambiguous narration 'paradys terrestre' 'whether she thought it paradys or helle' January having sex with May, links to the 'paradyse' image about marriage and narrative ambiguity Jacqueline Tasioulas- "the author, Chaucer, creating a pilgrim Chaucer, who recounts the words of the Wife of Bath, which are taken from the clerics, and put in the mouths of men who, in fact, never uttered them" [The Merchant/Chaucer is very coy in his tale, and the Wife of Bath creates false narration, establishing the nature of relationships as fabricated narratives, like the ‘make’ image] Reclaiming texts: WOB tears out leaves from her fifth husbands book 'I am a womman, nedes moot I speke,/Or elles swelle til myn herte breke/[…] sithen he seyde that we been jangleresses' Proserpine flips the narrative 'God bad us for to wexe and multiplye' "sith a man is moore resonable than womman is/ ye moste been suffrable" 'if wommen hadde written stories,/as clerkes han withinne her oratories,/They wolde han writen of men moore wikkednesse,/than al the mark of Adam may redresse' Wendy Scase "Jankyn is in control of the text [his book] and its interpretations"
They went across the lake to the region of the Gerasenes When Jesus got out of the boat a man with an impure spirit came from the tombs to meet him This man lived in the tombs and no one could bind him anymore not even with a chain For he had often been chained hand and foot but he tore the chains apart and broke the irons on his feet No one was strong enough to subdue him Night and day among the tombs and in the hills he would cry out and cut himself with stones
When he saw Jesus from a distance he ran and fell on his knees in front of him He shouted at the top of his voice What do you want with me Jesus Son of the Most High God? In Gods name dont torture me For Jesus had said to him Come out of this man you impure spirit
Then Jesus asked him What is your name? My name is Legion he replied for we are many And he begged Jesus again and again not to send them out of the area
A large herd of pigs was feeding on the nearby hillside The demons begged Jesus Send us among the pigs allow us to go into them He gave them permission and the impure spirits came out and went into the pigs The herd about two thousand in number rushed down the steep bank into the lake and were drowned
Those tending the pigs ran off and reported this in the town and countryside and the people went out to see what had happened When they came to Jesus they saw the man who had been possessed by the legion of demons sitting there dressed and in his right mind and they were afraid Those who had seen it told the people what had happened to the demonpossessed man—and told about the pigs as well Then the people began to plead with Jesus to leave their region
As Jesus was getting into the boat the man who had been demonpossessed begged to go with him Jesus did not let him but said Go home to your own people and tell them how much the Lord has done for you and how he has had mercy on you So the man went away and began to tell in the Decapolis how much Jesus had done for him And all the people were amazed
When Jesus had again crossed over by boat to the other side of the lake a large crowd gathered around him while he was by the lake Then one of the synagogue leaders named Jairus came and when he saw Jesus he fell at his feet He pleaded earnestly with him My little daughter is dying Please come and put your hands on her so that she will be healed and live So Jesus went with him
A large crowd followed and pressed around him And a woman was there who had been subject to bleeding for twelve years She had suffered a great deal under the care of many doctors and had spent all she had yet instead of getting better she grew worse
When she heard about Jesus she came up behind him in the crowd and touched his cloak because she thought If I just touch his clothes I will be healed Immediately her bleeding stopped and she felt in her body that she was freed from her suffering
At once Jesus realized that power had gone out from him He turned around in the crowd and asked Who touched my clothes?
You see the people crowding against you his disciples answered and yet you can ask Who touched me?
But Jesus kept looking around to see who had done it Then the woman knowing what had happened to her came and fell at his feet and trembling with fear told him the whole truth He said to her Daughter your faith has healed you Go in peace and be freed from your suffering
While Jesus was still speaking some people came from the house of Jairus the synagogue leader Your daughter is dead they said Why bother the teacher anymore?
Overhearing what they said Jesus told him Dont be afraid just believe
He did not let anyone follow him except Peter James and John the brother of James When they came to the home of the synagogue leader Jesus saw a commotion with people crying and wailing loudly He went in and said to them Why all this commotion and wailing? The child is not dead but asleep But they laughed at him
After he put them all out he took the childs father and mother and the disciples who were with him and went in where the child was He took her by the hand and said to her Talitha koum (which means Little girl I say to you get up) Immediately the girl stood up and began to walk around (she was twelve years old) At this they were completely astonished He gave strict orders not to let anyone know about this and told them to give her something to eat
“From forth the fatal loins of these two foes”
Prologue
Establishes the tragedy as a tragedy of fateJust like a Greek tragedy Who is blamed? “These two foes”Fate decided by God, but mainly the parentsThey are responsible; it's a family feud Emphasised by fricatives, emphasis of the F sound We swear with the letter F, effectiveness Shows Shakespeare's contempt for the parents
“Thrust.. Maids to the wall… my naked weapon is out” Samson and GregorySetting the scene of a patriarchal society Supposed to be funny, comical Underneath this it's not just sexist but violently sexist to the women They’re imagining “Thrusting the maids to the wall” This is rape They’re very interested in “maidenheads”, they want virgins Teenage boys who aren’t getting sex Difficult for them to have sex because women had to choose very careful who to marry Sex once = Lifelong commitment to that person Sexual violence underpins with whats wrong with this society Violence and killing is directly equated with sex Violence in this society has sexual undertones Ends with Juliet's tragic death All women in this society are oppressed Even Juliet's mother should be against this wedding but she isn't
“And too soon marred are those so early made” Lord Capulet to Paris Reason why he shouldn’t marry Juliet yet Let her “Wither two more summers in her prime” Misconception: Marriages before twenty were NOT common in this era Shakespeare himself was unusual Married at age 18 because he got Anne Hathaway pregnant at age 26 (Whoopsie) Deliberately got her pregnant to force his parents to have them married Bought her the most expensive property in Stratford Whilst he was writing in dodgy lodgings in London “Marred” means to spoil
Juliet is barely fourteen He wants the audience to find this bizarre because this is based in Italy A catholic country which was directly against the Church of England Catholicism = Second class citizen in UK Plays to the xenophobia of the audience Parents forcing marriage when children are so young
“For saints have hands that pilgrims hands do touch”
Juliet - Sonnet form When the lovers meet they speak in a sonnet Shakespeare was the most famous sonnet writer in the country During the plague, playhouses shut down Shakespeare made loads of money by still adhering to the rich men He puts the sonnet in the play as an advert To show that there is real love between the characters Sonnets are typically to show unrequited love The Petrarchan sonnet; most famous at the time Shakespeare plays with this and instead of being unrequited its based on falsehood Statues of saints are a representation of Catholic tradition Idolatry; worshipping false Gods Using religious imagery of the wrong denomination But to talk about sex! Undermining the love by using catholicism Wants their love to be as strong as the audiences faith in catholicism
“What satisfaction canst thou have tonight?”
Juliet to Romeo when he asks if “Wilt thou leave me so unsatisfied?”
Romeo has put out everything he has for her for sex Juliet reminds him that for them to flourish they’ll need to marry Simultaneously Shakespeare is critiquing patriarchal society Romeo is very desperate and offers to marry her Shakespeare's point is to exemplify that life would be better if marriage didn’t rely on virginity Wouldn’t life be better if fathers like Capulet couldn’t arrange marriages for daughters like Juliet This system of treating women like property of men: their father, their husbands is really damaging, not just to women but to society as a whole Shakespeare's own marriage
“Young men’s love then lies/ Not truly in their heart but in their eyes” Friar to Romeo “Lies” is a pun for both: rests and not being true Emphasizes “truly” Friar doesn’t believe that this is purely lust and marries them anyway He plays a major role in the tragedy Friar is a catholic figurehead Audience sees him as villainous Pushed by how the source poem that this play is based on portrays the Friar as super manipulative and super responsible In this play he still does terrible things But is not punished Very interesting detail that shows how Shakespeare may have been catholic himself and wouldn’t want to turn the villainous figure of the Friar into someone worse We are critical of the Friar because he is marrying them when even though lust is involved
“Good king of cats, nothing but one of your nine lives”
Mercutio to Tybalt Names similar to Tybalt were given to cats in the 1800s Mercutio is making fun of Tybalt Saying he's a character from fable He only wants one of Tybalt's nine lives Shows us that he's not taking him seriously Won't kill him Underestimates Tybalt's anger Comes from the family feud What's wrong with this society is that men have to prove themselves through violence Their status depends on them being dominant over other people Mercutio has not understood that lesson Thinks that dominance is just symbolic Fights wouldn’t usually be fatal Mercutio isn’t a family member so he doesn’t understand the weight of his actions
“Oh I am fortune's fool”
Romeo when he kills Tybalt due to Mercutio dying Under Romeo's hand Romeo is sort of responsible because he was being a pussy Leads to Romeo accusing Juliet of taking away his masculinity Has to prove himself Comes back to patriarchal society Has to defend family honor Kills Tybalt Can’t take accountability and blames it all on “fate” Shows his deep immaturity and Shakespeare's criticism of him Emphasized by the fricatives, “fortune's fool” Shows Shakespeare's contempt for Romeos own words This is characters doing the wrong thing and deciding on their own fate People are to blame as well as the patriarchal society which promotes men through their own sense of honor and masculinity, linked to violence and control of women
“But fettle your fine joints”
Capulet and his daughter Juliet Fricatives again, contempt for Capulets patriarchal control Insinuating she's gonna f*ck Paris due to the joints and hips moving Horrible sexual imagery with his own daughter Imagining her body as clay and she's shaping her joints to be attractive to a man Not just an attack on Capulet but one on patriarchal society
“Oh happy dagger, this is thy sheath”
Juliet killing herself Characterizes this in a very sexual way
She takes Romeo's dagger A sexual image regarding the sheath which is a leather sleeve which a dagger can fit Symbolically last sexual union she has with Romeo Hints that they’ll be together in the afterlife Shows the utter immaturity the lovers had All about lust Rebellious - “Whats in a name” “My only love sprung from my only hate” Attracted to each other because their love is forbidden Just as sex before marriage being forbidden Sex is a natural function Really important Rules about marriage are destroying society Don’t make any sense (We can use his own marriage to back this up)
“From forth the fatal loins of these two foes”
Prologue
Establishes the tragedy as a tragedy of fate
Just like a Greek tragedy
Who is blamed? “These two foes”
Fate decided by God, but mainly the parents
They are responsible; it's a family feud
Emphasised by fricatives, emphasis of the F sound
We swear with the letter F, effectiveness
Shows Shakespeare's contempt for the parents
“Thrust.. Maids to the wall… my naked weapon is out”
Samson and Gregory
Setting the scene of a patriarchal society
Supposed to be funny, comical
Underneath this it's not just sexist but
violently sexist to the women
They’re imagining “Thrusting the maids to the wall”
This is rape
They’re very interested in “maidenheads”, they want virgins
Teenage boys who aren’t getting sex
Difficult for them to have sex because women had to choose very careful who to marry
Sex once = Lifelong commitment to that person
Sexual violence underpins with whats wrong with this society
Violence and killing is directly equated with sex
Violence in this society has sexual undertones
Ends with Juliet's tragic death
All women in this society are oppressed
Even Juliet's mother should be against this wedding but she isn't
“And too soon marred are those so early made”
Lord Capulet to Paris
Reason why he shouldn’t marry Juliet yet
Let her “Wither two more summers in her prime”
Misconception: Marriages before twenty were NOT common in this era
Shakespeare himself was unusual
Married at age 18 because he got Anne Hathaway pregnant at age 26 (Whoopsie)
Deliberately got her pregnant to force his parents to have them married
Bought her the most expensive property in Stratford
Whilst he was writing in dodgy lodgings in London
“Marred” means to spoil
Juliet is barely fourteen
He wants the audience to find this bizarre because this is based in Italy
A catholic country which was directly against the Church of England
Catholicism = Second class citizen in UK
Plays to the xenophobia of the audience
Parents forcing marriage when children are so young
“For saints have hands that pilgrims hands do touch”
Juliet - Sonnet form
When the lovers meet they speak in a sonnet
Shakespeare was the most famous sonnet writer in the country
During the plague, playhouses shut down
Shakespeare made loads of money by still adhering to the rich men
He puts the sonnet in the play as an advert
To show that there is real love between the characters
Sonnets are typically to show unrequited love
The petrarchan sonnet; most famous at the time
Shakespeare plays with this and instead of being unrequited its based on falsehood
Statues of saints are a representation of Catholic tradition
Idolatry; worshipping false Gods
Using religious imagery of the wrong denomination
But to talk about sex!
Undermining the love by using catholicism
Wants their love to be as strong as the audiences faith in catholicism
“What satisfaction canst thou have tonight?”
Juliet to Romeo when he asks if “Wilt thou leave me so unsatisfied?”
Romeo has put out everything he has for her for sex
Juliet reminds him that for them to flourish they’ll need to marry
Simultaneously Shakespeare is critiquing patriarchal society
Romeo is very desperate and offers to marry her
Shakespeare's point is to exemplify that life would be better if marriage didn’t rely on virginity
Wouldn’t life be better if fathers like Capulet couldn’t arrange marriages for daughters like Juliet
This system of treating women like property of men: their father, their husbands is really damaging, not just to women but to society as a whole
Shakespeare's own marriage
“Young men’s love then lies/ Not truly in their heart but in their eyes” Friar to Romeo
“Lies” is a pun for both rests and not being true
Emphasises “truly”
Friar doesn’t believe that this is purely lust and marries them anyway
He plays a major role in the tragedy
Friar is a catholic figurehead
Audience sees him as villainous
Pushed by how the source poem that this play is based on portrays the Friar as super manipulative and super responsible
In this play he still does terrible things
But is not punished
Very interesting detail that shows how Shakespeare may have been catholic himself and wouldn’t want to turn the villainous figure of the Friar into someone worse
We are critical of the Friar because he is marrying them when even though lust is involved
“Good king of cats, nothing but one of your nine lives”
Mercutio to Tybalt
Names similar to Tybalt were given to cats in the 1800s
Mercutio is making fun of Tybalt
Saying he's a character from fable
He only wants one of Tybalt's nine lives
Shows us that he's not taking him seriously
Won't kill him
Underestimates Tybalt's anger
Comes from the family feud
What's wrong with this society is that men have to prove themselves through violence
Their status depends on them being dominant over other people
Mercutio has not understood that lesson
Thinks that dominance is just symbolic
Fights wouldn’t usually be fatal
Mercutio isn’t a family member so he doesn’t understand the weight of his actions
“Oh I am fortune's fool”
Romeo when he kills Tybalt due to Mercutio dying
Under Romeo's hand
Romeo is sort of responsible because he was being a pussy
Leads to Romeo accusing Juliet of taking away his masculinity
Has to prove himself
Comes back to patriarchal society
Has to defend family honour
Kills Tybalt
Can’t take accountability and blames it all on “fate”
Shows his deep immaturity and Shakespeare's criticism of him
Emphasised by the fricatives, “fortune's fool”
Shows Shakespeare's contempt for Romeos own words
This is characters doing the wrong thing and deciding on their own fate
People are to blame as well as the patriarchal society which promotes men through their own sense of honour and masculinity, linked to violence and control of women
“But fettle your fine joints”
Capulet and his daughter Juliet
Fricatives again, contempt for Capulets patriarchal control
Insinuating shes gonna f*ck Paris due to the joints and hips moving
Horrible sexual imagery with his own daughter
Imagining her body as clay and shes shaping her joints to be attractive to a man
Not just an attack on Capulet but one on patriarchal society
“Oh happy dagger, this is thy sheath”
Juliet killing herself
Characterises this in a very sexual way
She takes Romeo's dagger
A sexual image regarding the sheath which is a leather sleeve which a dagger can fit
Symbolically last sexual union she has with Romeo
Hints that they’ll be together in the afterlife
Shows the utter immaturity the lovers had
All about lust
Rebellious - “Whats in a name” “My only love sprung from my only hate”
Attracted to each other because their love is forbidden
Just as sex before marriage being forbidden
Sex is a natural function
Really important
Rules about marriage are destroying society
Don’t make any sense
(We can use his own marriage to back this up)
studying is the main source of knowledge books are indeed never failing friends of man for a mature mind reading is the greatest source of pleasure and solace to distressed minds the study of good books ennobles us and broadens our outlook therefore the habit of reading should be cultivated a student should never confine himself to his schoolbooks only he should not miss the pleasure locked in the classics poetry drama history philosophy etc
Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (/ˌɔːrkɪˈdeɪsi.iː, -si.aɪ/),[2] a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan plants that are found in almost every habitat on Earth except glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics.
Orchidaceae is one of the two largest families of flowering plants, along with the Asteraceae. It contains about 28,000 currently accepted species distributed across 763 genera.[3][4]
The Orchidaceae family encompasses about 6–11% of all species of seed plants.[5] The largest genera are Bulbophyllum (2,000 species), Epidendrum (1,500 species), Dendrobium (1,400 species) and Pleurothallis (1,000 species). It also includes Vanilla (the genus of the vanilla plant), the type genus Orchis, and many commonly cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis and Cattleya. Moreover, since the introduction of tropical species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids and cultivars.
Description
A Phalaenopsis flower
Orchids are easily distinguished from other plants, as they share some very evident derived characteristics or synapomorphies. Among these are: bilateral symmetry of the flower (zygomorphism), many resupinate flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal (labellum), fused stamens and carpels, and extremely small seeds.
Stem and roots
Germinating seeds of the temperate orchid Anacamptis coriophora
All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure. They can grow according to two patterns:
Monopodial: The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year, and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda and Vanilla.
Sympodial: Sympodial orchids have a front (the newest growth) and a back (the oldest growth).[6] The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots, which grow to a certain size, bloom and then stop growing and are replaced. Sympodial orchids grow horizontally, rather than vertically, following the surface of their support. The growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called 'eye', an undeveloped bud, thereby branching. Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a rhizome, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil.
Neotinea lactea, collected in Sardinia; the small size, compared to a one-Euro coin, and the two globose tuberoids typical of the Neotinea genus are highlighted
Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers. The root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white.
Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots. One is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops.
In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs.
Epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis, called a velamen, has the function of absorbing humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, called tilosomes.
The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients for epiphytic orchids mainly come from mineral dust, organic detritus, animal droppings and other substances collecting among on their supporting surfaces.
Pseudobulb of Prosthechea fragrans
The base of the stem of sympodial epiphytes, or in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form a pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods.
The pseudobulb typically has a smooth surface with lengthwise grooves, and can have different shapes, often conical or oblong. Its size is very variable; in some small species of Bulbophyllum, it is no longer than two millimeters, while in the largest orchid in the world, Grammatophyllum speciosum (giant orchid), it can reach three meters. Some Dendrobium species have long, canelike pseudobulbs with short, rounded leaves over the whole length; some other orchids have hidden or extremely small pseudobulbs, completely included inside the leaves.
With ageing the pseudobulb sheds its leaves and becomes dormant. At this stage it is often called a backbulb. Backbulbs still hold nutrition for the plant, but then a pseudobulb usually takes over, exploiting the last reserves accumulated in the backbulb, which eventually dies off, too. A pseudobulb typically lives for about five years. Orchids without noticeable pseudobulbs are also said to have growths, an individual component of a sympodial plant.
Leaves
Like most monocots, orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins, although some Vanilloideae have reticulate venation. Leaves may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate, and very variable in size on the individual plant. Their characteristics are often diagnostic. They are normally alternate on the stem, often folded lengthwise along the centre ("plicate"), and have no stipules. Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae) and are fibrous.
The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminae are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade-loving species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves.
The leaves of most orchids are perennial, that is, they live for several years, while others, especially those with plicate leaves as in Catasetum, shed them annually and develop new leaves together with new pseudobulbs.
The leaves of some orchids are considered ornamental. The leaves of Macodes sanderiana, a semiterrestrial or rock-hugging ("lithophyte") orchid, show a sparkling silver and gold veining on a light green background. The cordate leaves of Psychopsiella limminghei are light brownish-green with maroon-puce markings, created by flower pigments. The attractive mottle of the leaves of lady's slippers from tropical and subtropical Asia (Paphiopedilum), is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also, Phalaenopsis schilleriana is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and light green. The jewel orchid (Ludisia discolor) is grown more for its colorful leaves than its white flowers.
Some orchids, such as Dendrophylax lindenii (ghost orchid), Aphyllorchis and Taeniophyllum depend on their green roots for photosynthesis and lack normally developed leaves, as do all of the heterotrophic species.
Orchids of the genus Corallorhiza (coralroot orchids) lack leaves altogether and instead wrap their roots around the roots of mature trees and use specialized fungi to harvest sugars.[7]
Flowers
Orchid flowers have three sepals, three petals and a three-chambered ovary. The three sepals and two of the petals are often similar to each other but one petal is usually highly modified, forming a "lip" or labellum. In most orchid genera, as the flower develops, it undergoes a twisting through 180°, called resupination, so that the labellum lies below the column. The labellum functions to attract insects, and in resupinate flowers, also acts as a landing stage, or sometimes a trap.[8][9][10][11]
Labelled image of Caladenia alpina
Labelled image of Diuris carinata
The reproductive parts of an orchid flower are unique in that the stamens and style are joined to form a single structure, the column.[10][11][12] Instead of being released singly, thousands of pollen grains are contained in one or two bundles called pollinia that are attached to a sticky disc near the top of the column. Just below the pollinia is a second, larger sticky plate called the stigma.[8][9][10][11]
Reproduction
Pollination
Main article: Pollination of orchids
The complex mechanisms that orchids have evolved to achieve cross-pollination were investigated by Charles Darwin and described in Fertilisation of Orchids (1862). Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems, thus the chances of being pollinated are often scarce, so orchid flowers usually remain receptive for very long periods, rendering unpollinated flowers long-lasting in cultivation. Most orchids deliver pollen in a single mass. Each time pollination succeeds, thousands of ovules can be fertilized.
Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum. However, some Bulbophyllum species attract male fruit flies (Bactrocera and Zeugodacus spp.) solely via a floral chemical which simultaneously acts as a floral reward (e.g. methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone, or zingerone) to perform pollination.[13] The flowers may produce attractive odours. Although absent in most species, nectar may be produced in a spur of the labellum (8 in the illustration above), or on the point of the sepals, or in the septa of the ovary, the most typical position amongst the Asparagales.
Phalaenopsis pollinia (orange) attached to a toothpick with its sticky viscidium
In orchids that produce pollinia, pollination happens as some variant of the following sequence: when the pollinator enters into the flower, it touches a viscidium, which promptly sticks to its body, generally on the head or abdomen. While leaving the flower, it pulls the pollinium out of the anther, as it is connected to the viscidium by the caudicle or stipe. The caudicle then bends and the pollinium is moved forwards and downwards. When the pollinator enters another flower of the same species, the pollinium has taken such position that it will stick to the stigma of the second flower, just below the rostellum, pollinating it. In horticulture, artificial orchid pollination is achieved by removing the pollinia with a small instrument such as a toothpick from the pollen parent and transferring them to the seed parent.
Ophrys apifera is about to self-pollinate
Some orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination, especially in colder regions where pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower has not been visited by any pollinator, and the pollinia then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise, the anther may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in Holcoglossum amesianum).
The slipper orchid Paphiopedilum parishii reproduces by self-fertilization. This occurs when the anther changes from a solid to a liquid state and directly contacts the stigma surface without the aid of any pollinating agent or floral assembly.[14]
The labellum of the Cypripedioideae is poke bonnet-shaped, and has the function of trapping visiting insects. The only exit leads to the anthers that deposit pollen on the visitor.
In some extremely specialized orchids, such as the Eurasian genus Ophrys, the labellum is adapted to have a colour, shape, and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers.
Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees, which visit the flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attractants. Males of such species as Euglossa imperialis or Eulaema meriana have been observed to leave their territories periodically to forage for aromatic compounds, such as cineole, to synthesize pheromone for attracting and mating with females.[15][16] Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of a different species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination.
A rare achlorophyllous saprophytic orchid growing entirely underground in Australia, Rhizanthella slateri, is never exposed to light, and depends on ants and other terrestrial insects to pollinate it.
Catasetum, a genus discussed briefly by Darwin, actually launches its viscid pollinia with explosive force when an insect touches a seta, knocking the pollinator off the flower.
After pollination, the sepals and petals fade and wilt, but they usually remain attached to the ovary.
In 2011, Bulbophyllum nocturnum was discovered to flower nocturnally.[17]
Asexual reproduction
Some species, such as in the genera Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium, and Vanda, produce offshoots or plantlets formed from one of the nodes along the stem, through the accumulation of growth hormones at that point. These shoots are known as keiki.[18]
Epipogium aphyllum exhibits a dual reproductive strategy, engaging in both sexual and asexual seed production. The likelihood of apomixis playing a substantial role in successful reproduction appears minimal. Within certain petite orchid species groups, there is a noteworthy preparation of female gametes for fertilization preceding the act of pollination. [19]
Fruits and seeds
Cross-sections of orchid capsules showing the longitudinal slits
The ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by three or six longitudinal slits, while remaining closed at both ends.
The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening, they blow off like dust particles or spores. Most orchid species lack endosperm in their seed and must enter symbiotic relationships with various mycorrhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them the necessary nutrients to germinate, so almost all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant upon fungi to complete their lifecycles. Only a handful of orchid species have seed that can germinate without mycorrhiza, namely the species within the genus Disa with hydrochorous seeds.[20][21]
Disa uniflora seedling on a sphagnum leaf, on a thumbtack
As the chance for a seed to meet a suitable fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all the seeds released grow into adult plants. In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks.
Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating orchid seeds on an artificial nutrient medium, eliminating the requirement of the fungus for germination and greatly aiding the propagation of ornamental orchids. The usual medium for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is agar gel combined with a carbohydrate energy source. The carbohydrate source can be combinations of discrete sugars or can be derived from other sources such as banana, pineapple, peach, or even tomato puree or coconut water. After the preparation of the agar medium, it is poured into test tubes or jars which are then autoclaved (or cooked in a pressure cooker) to sterilize the medium. After cooking, the medium begins to gel as it cools.
Taxonomy
Main article: Taxonomy of the Orchid family
The taxonomy of this family is in constant flux, as new studies continue to clarify the relationships between species and groups of species, allowing more taxa at several ranks to be recognized. The Orchidaceae is currently placed in the order Asparagales by the APG III system of 2009.[1]
Five subfamilies are recognised. The cladogram below was made according to the APG system of 1998. It represents the view that most botanists had held up to that time. It was supported by morphological studies, but never received strong support in molecular phylogenetic studies.
Apostasioideae: 2 genera and 16 species, south-eastern Asia
Cypripedioideae: 5 genera and 130 species, from the temperate regions of the world, as well as tropical America and tropical Asia
Monandrae
Vanilloideae: 15 genera and 180 species, humid tropical and subtropical regions, eastern North America
Epidendroideae: more than 500 genera and more or less 20,000 species, cosmopolitan
Orchidoideae: 208 genera and 3,630 species, cosmopolitan
In 2015, a phylogenetic study[22] showed strong statistical support for the following topology of the orchid tree, using 9 kb of plastid and nuclear DNA from 7 genes, a topology that was confirmed by a phylogenomic study in the same year.[23]
Apostasioideae
Vanilloideae
Cypripedioideae
Epidendroideae
Orchidoideae
Evolution
A study in the scientific journal Nature has hypothesised that the origin of orchids goes back much longer than originally expected.[24] An extinct species of stingless bee, Proplebeia dominicana, was found trapped in Miocene amber from about 15-20 million years ago. The bee was carrying pollen of a previously unknown orchid taxon, Meliorchis caribea, on its wings. This find is the first evidence of fossilised orchids to date[24] and shows insects were active pollinators of orchids then. This extinct orchid, M. caribea, has been placed within the extant tribe Cranichideae, subtribe Goodyerinae (subfamily Orchidoideae). An even older orchid species, Succinanthera baltica, was described from the Eocene Baltic amber by Poinar & Rasmussen (2017).[25]
Genetic sequencing indicates orchids may have arisen earlier, 76 to 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous.[26] According to Mark W. Chase et al. (2001), the overall biogeography and phylogenetic patterns of Orchidaceae show they are even older and may go back roughly 100 million years.[27]
Using the molecular clock method, it was possible to determine the age of the major branches of the orchid family. This also confirmed that the subfamily Vanilloideae is a branch at the basal dichotomy of the monandrous orchids, and must have evolved very early in the evolution of the family. Since this subfamily occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, from tropical America to tropical Asia, New Guinea and West Africa, and the continents began to split about 100 million years ago, significant biotic exchange must have occurred after this split (since the age of Vanilla is estimated at 60 to 70 million years). Recent biogeographic studies conducted on densely sampled phylogenies indicated that the most recent common ancestor of all extant orchids probably originated somewhere 83 million years ago in the supercontinent Laurasia.[28] Despite their long evolutionary history on Earth, the extant orchid diversity is also inferred to have originated during the last 5 million years,[28] with the American and Asian tropics as the geopgraphic areas exhibiting the highest speciation rates (i.e., number of speciation events per million years) on Earth.
Genome duplication occurred prior to the divergence of this taxon.[29]
Genera
Main article: List of Orchidaceae genera
There are around 800 genera of orchids. The following are amongst the most notable genera of the orchid family:[30]
Aa
Abdominea
Acampe
Acanthophippium
Aceratorchis
Acianthus
Acineta
Acrorchis
Ada
Aerangis
Aeranthes
Aerides
Aganisia
Agrostophyllum
Anacamptis
Ancistrochilus
Angraecum
Anguloa
Ansellia
Aorchis
Aplectrum
Arachnis
Arethusa
Armodorum
Ascoglossum
Australorchis
Auxopus
Barkeria
Bartholina
Beloglottis
Biermannia
Bletilla
Brassavola
Brassia
Bulbophyllum
Calanthe
Calypso
Catasetum
Cattleya
Chiloschista
Cirrhopetalum
Cleisostoma
Clowesia
Coelogyne
Coryanthes
Cycnoches
Cymbidium
Cyrtopodium
Cypripedium
Dactylorhiza
Dendrobium
Disa
Dracula
Encyclia
Epidendrum
Epipactis
Eria
Eulophia
Gastrochilus
Gongora
Goodyera
Grammatophyllum
Gymnadenia
Habenaria
Herschelia
Ionopsis
Laelia
Lepanthes
Liparis
Ludisia
Lycaste
Masdevallia
Maxillaria
Meliorchis
Mexipedium
Miltonia
Mormodes
Odontoglossum
Oeceoclades
Oncidium
Ophrys
Orchis
Paphiopedilum
Papilionanthe
Paraphalaenopsis
Peristeria
Phaius
Phalaenopsis
Pholidota
Phragmipedium
Platanthera
Platystele
Pleione
Pleurothallis
Pomatocalpa
Promenaea
Pterostylis
Renanthera
Restrepia
Restrepiella
Rhynchostylis
Roezliella
Saccolabium
Sarcochilus
Satyrium
Seidenfadenia
Selenipedium
Serapias
Sobralia
Spiranthes
Stanhopea
Stelis
Thrixspermum
Tolumnia
Trias
Trichocentrum
Trichoglottis
Vanda
Vanilla
Yoania
Zeuxine
Zygopetalum
Etymology
The type genus (i.e. the genus after which the family is named) is Orchis. The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (órkhis), literally meaning "testicle", because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of Orchis.[31][32][33] The term "orchid" was introduced in 1845 by John Lindley in School Botany,[34] as a shortened form of Orchidaceae.[35]
In Middle English, the name bollockwort was used for some orchids, based on "bollock" meaning testicle and "wort" meaning plant.[36]
Hybrids
Orchid species hybridize readily in cultivation, leading to a large number of hybrids with complex naming. Hybridization is possible across genera, and therefore many cultivated orchids are placed into nothogenera. For instance, the nothogenus × Brassocattleya is used for all hybrids of species from the genera Brassavola and Cattleya. Nothogenera based on at least three genera may have names based on a person's name with the suffix -ara, for instance × Colmanara = Miltonia × Odontoglossum × Oncidium. (The suffix is obligatory starting at four genera.[37])
Cultivated hybrids in the orchid family are also special in that they are named by using grex nomenclature, rather than nothospecies. For instance, hybrids between Brassavola nodosa and Brassavola acaulis are placed in the grex Brassavola Guiseppi.[38] The name of the grex ("Guiseppi" in this example) is written in a non-italic font without quotes.[39]
Abbreviations
As a unique feature of the orchid family, a system of abbreviations exists that applies to names of genera and nothogenera. The system is maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society.[40] These abbreviations consist of at least one character, but may be longer. As opposed to the usual one-letter abbreviations used for names of genera, orchid abbreviations uniquely determine the (notho)genus. They are widely used in cultivation. Examples are Phal for Phalaenopsis, V for Vanda and Cleis for Cleisostoma.
Distribution
Orchidaceae are cosmopolitan, occurring in almost every habitat apart from glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics, but they are also found above the Arctic Circle, in southern Patagonia, and two species of Nematoceras on Macquarie Island at 54° south.
The following list gives a rough overview of their distribution:[citation needed]
Oceania: 50 to 70 genera
North America: 20 to 26 genera
tropical America: 212 to 250 genera
tropical Asia: 260 to 300 genera
tropical Africa: 230 to 270 genera
Europe and temperate Asia: 40 to 60 genera
Ecology
A majority of orchids are perennial epiphytes, which grow anchored to trees or shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. Species such as Angraecum sororium are lithophytes,[41] growing on rocks or very rocky soil. Other orchids (including the majority of temperate Orchidaceae) are terrestrial and can be found in habitat areas such as grasslands or forest.
Some orchids, such as Neottia and Corallorhiza, lack chlorophyll, so are unable to photosynthesise. Instead, these species obtain energy and nutrients by parasitising soil fungi through the formation of orchid mycorrhizae. The fungi involved include those that form ectomycorrhizas with trees and other woody plants, parasites such as Armillaria, and saprotrophs.[42] These orchids are known as myco-heterotrophs, but were formerly (incorrectly) described as saprophytes as it was believed they gained their nutrition by breaking down organic matter. While only a few species are achlorophyllous holoparasites, all orchids are myco-heterotrophic during germination and seedling growth, and even photosynthetic adult plants may continue to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal fungi.[43][44] The symbiosis is typically maintained throughout the lifetime of the orchid because they depend on the fungus for nutrients, sugars and minerals.[45]
Uses
As decoration in a flowerpot
A × Brassolaeliocattleya ("BLC") Paradise Jewel 'Flame' hybrid orchid. Blooms of the Cattleya alliance are often used in ladies' corsages.
Perfumery
The scent of orchids is frequently analysed by perfumers (using headspace technology and gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry) to identify potential fragrance chemicals.[46]
Horticulture
The other important use of orchids is their cultivation for the enjoyment of the flowers. Most cultivated orchids are tropical or subtropical, but quite a few that grow in colder climates can be found on the market. Temperate species available at nurseries include Ophrys apifera (bee orchid), Gymnadenia conopsea (fragrant orchid), Anacamptis pyramidalis (pyramidal orchid) and Dactylorhiza fuchsii (common spotted orchid).
Orchids of all types have also often been sought by collectors of both species and hybrids. Many hundreds of societies and clubs worldwide have been established. These can be small, local clubs, or larger, national organisations such as the American Orchid Society. Both serve to encourage cultivation and collection of orchids, but some go further by concentrating on conservation or research.
The term "botanical orchid" loosely denotes those small-flowered, tropical orchids belonging to several genera that do not fit into the "florist" orchid category. A few of these genera contain enormous numbers of species. Some, such as Pleurothallis and Bulbophyllum, contain approximately 1700 and 2000 species, respectively, and are often extremely vegetatively diverse. The primary use of the term is among orchid hobbyists wishing to describe unusual species they grow, though it is also used to distinguish naturally occurring orchid species from horticulturally created hybrids.
New orchids are registered with the International Orchid Register, maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society.[47]
Food
Further information: Vanilla
Vanilla fruit drying
The dried seed pods of one orchid genus, Vanilla (especially Vanilla planifolia), are commercially important as a flavouring in baking, for perfume manufacture and aromatherapy.
The underground tubers of terrestrial orchids [mainly Orchis mascula (early purple orchid)] are ground to a powder and used for cooking, such as in the hot beverage salep or in the Turkish mastic ice cream dondurma. The name salep has been claimed to come from the Arabic expression ḥasyu al-tha‘lab, "fox testicles", but it appears more likely the name comes directly from the Arabic name saḥlab. The similarity in appearance to testes naturally accounts for salep being considered an aphrodisiac.
The dried leaves of Jumellea fragrans are used to flavour rum on Reunion Island.
Some saprophytic orchid species of the group Gastrodia produce potato-like tubers and were consumed as food by native peoples in Australia and can be successfully cultivated, notably Gastrodia sesamoides. Wild stands of these plants can still be found in the same areas as early Aboriginal settlements, such as Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Australia. Aboriginal peoples located the plants in habitat by observing where bandicoots had scratched in search of the tubers after detecting the plants underground by scent.[note 1]
Cultural symbolism
Orchids have many associations with symbolic values. For example, the orchid is the City Flower of Shaoxing, China. Cattleya mossiae is the national Venezuelan flower, while Cattleya trianae is the national flower of Colombia. Vanda Miss Joaquim is the national flower of Singapore, Guarianthe skinneri is the national flower of Costa Rica and Rhyncholaelia digbyana is the national flower of Honduras.[49] Prosthechea cochleata is the national flower of Belize, where it is known as the black orchid.[50] Lycaste skinneri has a white variety (alba) that is the national flower of Guatemala, commonly known as Monja Blanca (White Nun). Panama's national flower is the Holy Ghost orchid (Peristeria elata), or 'the flor del Espiritu Santo'. Rhynchostylis retusa is the state flower of the Indian state of Assam where it is known as Kopou Phul.[51]
Orchids native to the Mediterranean are depicted on the Ara Pacis in Rome, until now the only known instance of orchids in ancient art, and the earliest in European art.[note 2] A French writer and agronomist, Louis Liger, invented a classical myth in his book Le Jardinier Fleuriste et Historiographe published in 1704, attributing it to the ancient Greeks and Romans, in which Orchis the son of a nymph and a satyr rapes a priestess of Bacchus during one of his festivals the Bacchanalia and is then killed and transformed into an orchid flower as punishment by the gods, paralleling the various myths of youths dying and becoming flowers, like Adonis and Narcisuss; this myth however does not appear any earlier than Liger, and is not part of traditional Greek and Roman mythologies.[53]
Technician A says that the low air brake pressure warning lamp should be lit when the supply system pressure is below 60 psi. Technician B says that the parking brakes should automatically apply when the supply system air pressure falls below 45 psi. Who is right?
The horns in the circuit shown only blow when a jumper wire is connected between terminals 30 and 87 of the horn relay. Technician A says that a failed horn relay could be the cause. Technician B says that a short to ground in the circuit between the horn relay and the horn button could be the cause
A constant buzzing noise is coming from the power steering pump. Technician A says air in the system could be the cause. Technician B says that a stuck-open relief valve could be the cause. Who is right?
A truck has a history of springs breaking at the center bolt holes. Technician A says that loose U-bolts could be the cause. Technician B says that loose spring shackles could be the cause.
Which of these is the minimum tire tread depth permitted by federal DOT standards on all steer axle tires on trucks, tractors, or buses?
Both headlights on a vehicle are dim in high beam and normal in low beam. Technician A says that a poor headlight ground could be the cause. Technician B says that a shorted headlight switch could be the cause
A driver complains that the trailer marker lights are dim at night while braking. Which of these is the most likely cause?
Low battery voltage
One burned out brake light bulb
A poor ground in the trailer light cord
Too much grease on the 5th wheel
The driver of a truck says that it is hard to steer, and the steering wheel return is poor. Technician A says that binding kingpins could be the cause. Technician B says that too much toe-in could be the cause.
The driver of a truck that has just had its front springs and hangers replaced says that it is hard to keep in a straight-ahead position. Technician A says that this could be caused by installing the caster shims backwards. Technician B says that this could be caused by installing forward spring hangers which are too short.
The drive axles on a truck with a walking beam suspension are out of alignment. Technician A says that incorrect length torque rods could be the cause. Technician B says that worn walking beam bushings could be the cause.
Which of these could cause the front tires of a truck to show a feathered edge wear pattern
Technician A says that the low air brake pressure warning lamp should be lit when the supply system pressure is below 60 psi. Technician B says that the parking brakes should automatically apply when the supply system air pressure falls below 45 psi. Who is right?
The horns in the circuit shown only blow when a jumper wire is connected between terminals 30 and 87 of the horn relay. Technician A says that a failed horn relay could be the cause. Technician B says that a short to ground in the circuit between the horn relay and the horn button could be the cause
A constant buzzing noise is coming from the power steering pump. Technician A says air in the system could be the cause. Technician B says that a stuck-open relief valve could be the cause. Who is right?
A truck has a history of springs breaking at the center bolt holes. Technician A says that loose U-bolts could be the cause. Technician B says that loose spring shackles could be the cause.
Which of these is the minimum tire tread depth permitted by federal DOT standards on all steer axle tires on trucks, tractors, or buses?
Both headlights on a vehicle are dim in high beam and normal in low beam. Technician A says that a poor headlight ground could be the cause. Technician B says that a shorted headlight switch could be the cause
A driver complains that the trailer marker lights are dim at night while braking. Which of these is the most likely cause?
Low battery voltage
One burned out brake light bulb
A poor ground in the trailer light cord
Too much grease on the 5th wheel
The driver of a truck says that it is hard to steer, and the steering wheel return is poor. Technician A says that binding kingpins could be the cause. Technician B says that too much toe-in could be the cause.
The driver of a truck that has just had its front springs and hangers replaced says that it is hard to keep in a straight-ahead position. Technician A says that this could be caused by installing the caster shims backwards. Technician B says that this could be caused by installing forward spring hangers which are too short.
The drive axles on a truck with a walking beam suspension are out of alignment. Technician A says that incorrect length torque rods could be the cause. Technician B says that worn walking beam bushings could be the cause.
Which of these could cause the front tires of a truck to show a feathered edge wear pattern
Effective HR leadership combines several critical skills: the ability to see opportunities and problems, to envision a different future and design a path toward it, to rally necessary support within the organization, and to manage initiatives that create measurable and sustainable benefits.
The HR professional in this scenario helped her organization realign head count to optimize benefits costs and managerial efficiency. She used her Business Acumen and Analytical Aptitude competencies to understand the issue more fully and then used her Relationship Management and Communication skills to win support for and implement a solution.
The HR professional is an HR director for a health and fitness business with multiple locations. The business typically has about 350 employees, although employment does predictably rise during vacation periods.
The chief financial officer came to the HR director with an interesting and concerning observation: Head count had grown by 8% over the past year although no new department programs or specific positions had been added. Although the business was increasing its revenue, this situation might be depressing revenue growth.
HR launched an investigation and discovered that hiring managers, across all departments, had allowed employees to reduce the number of hours they worked and then filled the open shifts with additional staff. The reasons for reduction in hours were varied, and sometimes they were understandable (for example, children’s school activities, the demands of other jobs they were holding, university class schedules). Sometimes an employee simply did not want to work nights or weekends. Instead of insisting that staff maintain the minimum number of hours required for their position, managers allowed employees to work fewer hours. Many managers commented that these were “good employees” or they had “worked here a long time” and the managers felt bad about letting them go because they could no longer work specific hours.
At HR’s suggestion, the company implemented a temporary hiring freeze. To minimize panic, HR communicated with all employees through an e-mail. HR positioned the freeze as part of an efficiency study, not a tactic necessitated by poor revenue. The e-mail expressed pride in the workforce but described the unsustainable situation. Too many people were working too few hours. This put a strain on customer service since employees with low attendance were not available when a fitness center tried to change hours to meet customer needs. It strained company costs since all employees, without regard to the number of hours worked, enjoyed the benefits of fitness center membership for all family members. It also strained managers’ efficiency since they had to supervise more employees. As a result, during the coming months, HR would be working with departments to establish minimal expectations of hours worked for current and future hires. HR and managers would work with individual employees to meet these expectations.
The HR director was able to draw on her knowledge of business needs and her understanding of the frequent time pressures on the company’s employees. The initiative also benefited from the culture that its leaders had created. The concept of sharing employees and working together across department lines was accepted enthusiastically.
The Role of the Leader
The term “human resource management” points immediately to the role of management skills for HR professionals. The 20th-century French management theorist Henri Fayol defined the functions of management as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling.
These management skills are necessary for HR professionals to assist their organizations in implementing their strategies, but just as important as management skills is the ability to create an organizational environment that develops, releases, and includes team talents and perspectives.
Daniel Goleman reported in the Harvard Business Review on research into the impact of different leadership styles on factors that help create motivation and engagement in a workplace. The research indicated that leadership style affects:
- Employees’ ability to make decisions that affect their work.
-Employees’ sense of responsibility to the organization or team.
-The standards employees seek to meet or exceed.
-Employees’ belief that they will be rewarded for their work.
-An understood mission and shared values.
-A feeling of commitment to a shared goal.
Because environments differ and situations change, HR professionals need to become more skillful at understanding their team needs and their organizations’ cultures and more flexible and thoughtful in being the leader that the situation calls for. They can then help other leaders in their organization to fulfill their roles more effectively.
Approaches to Leading
Six approaches to leadership are summarized in Exhibit 1-1. There is no single effective approach to leadership. Different approaches may be more or less effective in achieving results under certain conditions. The different approaches also have different effects on the organization’s environment. For example, coercive leadership may be effective at certain times but tends to weaken the workplace environment.
Coercive: The leader imposes a vision or solution on the team and demands that the team follow this directive.
Effective during crises when immediate and clear action is required.
Ineffective at other times when it can damage employees’ sense of ownership in their work and motivation.
Authoritative: The leader proposes a bold vision or solution and invites the team to join this challenge.
Effective at times when there is no clear path forward and when the proposal is compelling and captures the team’s imagination. Team members have a clear goal and understand their roles in the effort. They are encouraged to contribute their own ideas and take risks.
Ineffective when the leader lacks real expertise.
Affiliative: The leader creates strong relationships with and inside the team, encouraging feedback. The team members are motivated by loyalty.
Effective at all times but especially when a leader has inherited a dysfunctional and dispirited team that needs to be transformed. Leader must have strong relationship-building and management skills.
Ineffective when used alone. For example, opportunities to correct or improve performance may not be taken because the affiliative leader fears damaging a relationship.
Democratic: The leader invites followers to collaborate and commits to acting by consensus.
Effective when the leader does not have a clear vision or anticipates strong resistance to a change. Team members must be competent; leaders must have strong communication skills.
Ineffective when time is short, since building consensus takes time and multiple meetings.
Pacesetting: The leader sets a model for high performance standards and challenges followers to meet these expectations.
Effective when teams are composed of highly competent and internally motivated employees.
Ineffective when expectations and the pace of work become excessive and employees become tired and discouraged. In the leader’s attempt to set high goals, he or she may focus exclusively on the task and not give enough time to activities that motivate team members, such as feedback, relationship building, and rewards.
Coaching: The leader focuses on developing team members’ skills, believing that success comes from aligning the organization’s goals with employees’ personal and professional goals.
Effective when leaders are highly skilled in strategic management, communication, and motivation and when they can manage their time to include coaching as a primary activity. Team members must also be receptive to coaching.
Ineffective when employees resist changing their performance.
And you have no devouring devil inside you who must be fed with action and victory? Gorged with them night and day! And who makes you pay, with the sweat of your brain and body. Weeks of Herculean toil for ten minutes of enjoyment. Who is at once your slave and your tyrant, your genius and your doom. Who brings you a crown in one hand and the oar of a galley slave in another! Who shows you all the kingdoms of the earth and offers you to become their master on the condition that you become their servant! Have you none of that in you?...There are three sorts of people in the world, the low people, the middle people, and the high people. The low and the high are alike in one thing: they have no scruples, no morality. The low are beneath it, the high above it. I am afraid of neither of them: for the low are unscrupulous without knowledge, so that they make an idol of me. Whilst the high are unscrupulous without purpose, so that they bow down before my will.
Stock flower (Matthiola incana), also known as gillyflower or hoary stock, is a hardy plant which brings splashes of colour and a sweet and spicy fragrance to a garden. With clusters of blooms forming a frilly spire of petals and narrow green-grey leaves, it also makes a long-lasting cut flower. The species plant is native to southern Europe and has purple flowers, but many single- and double-flowered cultivars have been developed in a range of colours, from white and yellow through every shade of pink, to red and purple. Stocks attract pollinating insects to the garden. Stock flower is usually a biennial, meaning it has a two-year life cycle. In the first year, the summer-sown plant develops roots, stems and leaves, and survives through winter. In the second year, it flowers and sets seed before dying.
Stocks are fairly hardy, but may suffer in very hard frosts. Article continues below advert How to grow stock flowers Grow stock flower from seed and plant in full sun in an informal flower border. For a bushier plant with more flower spikes, pinch out the growing tip in spring. Deadhead throughout summer and, when the flower display is over, dig up the plant and add it to your compost heap. Where to grow stock flowers Grow stocks in full sun, but if your garden tends to get very hot in summer it may be better to plant them in partial shade to avoid the more intense midday sun. The plant does well in a sheltered spot in moist, free-draining soil and is suitable for a container or a flower border. Plant taller cultivars (up to 60cm) in the middle of a border, and shorter ones towards the front. Grow them close to seating areas so that you can appreciate their sweet, clove-like scent. Stock flower, like the rest of the cabbage family, does not thrive in acid soil. More like this How to plant stock flowers Stock flower seedling.
Getty Images Stock flower seedling. Getty Images Stocks are easy to grow from seed. In early summer, sow seeds in a tray, scattering them thinly on the surface of a sowing compost and covering with a light sprinkling of sieved compost or preferably vermiculite, which will let a little more light through, leading to better germination with these particular seeds. Cover with a transparent tray cover or lid and place them somewhere with some sunlight at a temperature of 18-20ºC, until germination about 10 days later. When the seedlings have two true leaves, prick them out into pots and grow them on. In early autumn, plant them where you want them to flower the next year. Alternatively, sow seed directly into the flower bed in early summer, lightly rake over them and water very lightly using a watering can with a fine rose attachment. When the seedlings have several leaves, thin them to 25cm apart.
They will overwinter in the garden and flower the following summer. Another way of sowing seed direct is to create shallow drills in the soil roughly 25cm apart, watering this, and then thinly sowing the seed into the drill and finishing by drawing a light covering of soil back over the seeds. The advantage of this method is that it makes it much easier to distinguish the seedlings from weed seeds, and the straight lines of seedlings are much easier to hoe around. Plant out your seed-grown stock flowers (or plug plants from a nursery) in September, when the soil is still warm. They will continue to grow roots and leaves until the first frosts, and will then flower the following spring and into summer. In areas that get really harsh winters, protect the plants in a well-ventilated cold frame, glasshouse or unheated conservatory, and plant them out in spring, once the risk of very heavy frosts has passed in your area. Use a trowel to dig a hole a little larger than the rootball, set the plant in gently and back-fill the hole with soil, firming it down with your fingers so that the lowest leaves are level with the soil surface. Space your plants at least 25cm apart. Water in gently. How to care for stock flowers Matthiola incana flowers Matthiola incana flowers In the second year, in spring, pinch out the growing tip of the plants to encourage branching, which results in denser foliage and more flower spikes. Water regularly in dry conditions, especially at the seedling stage, taking care to water the soil, not the leaves of the plants. Cut back after flowering, and at the end of the season pull or dig up the plants and add them to your compost heap. How to propagate stock flowers Instead of cutting back all the spent flower spikes, leave one or two to produce seed.
They will form long, narrow seed capsules along the stem. When they are ripe (they will turn from green to brown), pick the capsules and lay them out to dry somewhere warm indoors. When they split, collect the seed and store it in a labelled envelope. A word of warning: they may not produce flowers of the same colour or form as the parent plant, due to cross pollination. Pests and diseases The soft, velvety leaves of stock flowers are susceptible to mildew, so make sure the seedlings are well-spaced and well-ventilated. Make sure you give each plant enough space in the border and avoid getting the leaves wet when watering. Advice on buying stock flowers Also known as Brompton stock, the scientific name for stock flower is Matthiola incana. It is sometimes confused with night-scented stock, Matthiola longipetala, a close relative Buy plug plants in early autumn for immediate planting in their flowering position or potting on to overwinter
Stock flower (Matthiola incana), also known as gillyflower or hoary stock, is a hardy plant which brings splashes of colour and a sweet and spicy fragrance to a garden. With clusters of blooms forming a frilly spire of petals and narrow green-grey leaves, it also makes a long-lasting cut flower. The species plant is native to southern Europe and has purple flowers, but many single- and double-flowered cultivars have been developed in a range of colours, from white and yellow through every shade of pink, to red and purple. Stocks attract pollinating insects to the garden. Stock flower is usually a biennial, meaning it has a two-year life cycle. In the first year, the summer-sown plant develops roots, stems and leaves, and survives through winter. In the second year, it flowers and sets seed before dying. Stocks are fairly hardy, but may suffer in very hard frosts. Article continues below advert How to grow stock flowers Grow stock flower from seed and plant in full sun in an informal flower border. For a bushier plant with more flower spikes, pinch out the growing tip in spring. Deadhead throughout summer and, when the flower display is over, dig up the plant and add it to your compost heap. Where to grow stock flowers Grow stocks in full sun, but if your garden tends to get very hot in summer it may be better to plant them in partial shade to avoid the more intense midday sun. The plant does well in a sheltered spot in moist, free-draining soil and is suitable for a container or a flower border. Plant taller cultivars (up to 60cm) in the middle of a border, and shorter ones towards the front. Grow them close to seating areas so that you can appreciate their sweet, clove-like scent. Stock flower, like the rest of the cabbage family, does not thrive in acid soil. More like this How to plant stock flowers Stock flower seedling. Getty Images Stock flower seedling. Getty Images Stocks are easy to grow from seed. In early summer, sow seeds in a tray, scattering them thinly on the surface of a sowing compost and covering with a light sprinkling of sieved compost or preferably vermiculite, which will let a little more light through, leading to better germination with these particular seeds. Cover with a transparent tray cover or lid and place them somewhere with some sunlight at a temperature of 18-20ºC, until germination about 10 days later. When the seedlings have two true leaves, prick them out into pots and grow them on. In early autumn, plant them where you want them to flower the next year. Alternatively, sow seed directly into the flower bed in early summer, lightly rake over them and water very lightly using a watering can with a fine rose attachment. When the seedlings have several leaves, thin them to 25cm apart. They will overwinter in the garden and flower the following summer. Another way of sowing seed direct is to create shallow drills in the soil roughly 25cm apart, watering this, and then thinly sowing the seed into the drill and finishing by drawing a light covering of soil back over the seeds. The advantage of this method is that it makes it much easier to distinguish the seedlings from weed seeds, and the straight lines of seedlings are much easier to hoe around. Plant out your seed-grown stock flowers (or plug plants from a nursery) in September, when the soil is still warm. They will continue to grow roots and leaves until the first frosts, and will then flower the following spring and into summer. In areas that get really harsh winters, protect the plants in a well-ventilated cold frame, glasshouse or unheated conservatory, and plant them out in spring, once the risk of very heavy frosts has passed in your area. Use a trowel to dig a hole a little larger than the rootball, set the plant in gently and back-fill the hole with soil, firming it down with your fingers so that the lowest leaves are level with the soil surface. Space your plants at least 25cm apart. Water in gently. How to care for stock flowers Matthiola incana flowers Matthiola incana flowers In the second year, in spring, pinch out the growing tip of the plants to encourage branching, which results in denser foliage and more flower spikes. Water regularly in dry conditions, especially at the seedling stage, taking care to water the soil, not the leaves of the plants. Cut back after flowering, and at the end of the season pull or dig up the plants and add them to your compost heap. How to propagate stock flowers Instead of cutting back all the spent flower spikes, leave one or two to produce seed. They will form long, narrow seed capsules along the stem. When they are ripe (they will turn from green to brown), pick the capsules and lay them out to dry somewhere warm indoors. When they split, collect the seed and store it in a labelled envelope. A word of warning: they may not produce flowers of the same colour or form as the parent plant, due to cross pollination. Pests and diseases The soft, velvety leaves of stock flowers are susceptible to mildew, so make sure the seedlings are well-spaced and well-ventilated. Make sure you give each plant enough space in the border and avoid getting the leaves wet when watering. Advice on buying stock flowers Also known as Brompton stock, the scientific name for stock flower is Matthiola incana. It is sometimes confused with night-scented stock, Matthiola longipetala, a close relative Buy plug plants in early autumn for immediate planting in their flowering position or potting on to overwinter
They are having fun when they achieve something that’s supposed to be great. They celebrate it together with everyone, with their lovers, with their family. They go to a fancy restaurant, a playing court, a club, or stroll somewhere expensive, right after. I watch them devoid of loneliness and envy. I just ask myself: “Is it really that great of an achievement? Or are they just finding excuse to celebrate?” Everyone just wants to be happy. I know that. But if everyone’s supposed to be happy from that, then why am I not? I worked very hard on these things. I’m convinced that I worked harder than everyone else. But all my hard works only cursed myself and those that I care. I failed a lot and achieved a lot. I did better than everyone else, as always. They also think that. But what then? I don’t want a shallow praise on how high a score I got. I just want anyone, somebody to appreciate at least a bit of effort that I did. I think I would be happy if someone did.
